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Giovanni De Feo Subscribe SciFeed Recommended Articles Related Info Link Google Scholar More by Authors Links on DOAJ Abualhaija, M. Shammout, M. on Google Scholar Abualhaija, M. Shammout, M. on PubMed Abualhaija, M. Shammout, M. /ajax/scifeed/subscribe Article Views Citations - Table of Contents Altmetric share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up ... Endorse textsms ... Comment Need Help? Support

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Get Information clear JSmol Viewer clear first_page settings Order Article Reprints Font Type: Arial Georgia Verdana Font Size: Aa Aa Aa Line Spacing:    Column Width:    Background: Open AccessArticle Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown on the Quality and Pollution of Irrigation Water in the Dams of Jordan by

Mahmoud Abualhaija * ORCID

and

Maisa’a Shammout ORCID

Water, Energy, and Environment Center, The University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Sustainability 2022, 14(21), 14596; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114596 Received: 8 October 2022 / Revised: 2 November 2022 / Accepted: 3 November 2022 / Published: 7 November 2022 Download Download PDF Download PDF with Cover Download XML Download Epub Browse Figures Versions Notes

Abstract: While the world continues to tackle the COVID-19 pandemic and its impacts on public health and the economy, among other issues (e.g., the environment), water, as a major component of the environment, has been significantly affected. This research aims to examine the quality and pollution of irrigation water in six selected vital dams in Jordan, in terms of the Irrigation Water Quality Index (IWQI) and Irrigation Water Pollution Index (IWPI), respectively, in view of determining any changes in the water quality and pollution load between the COVID-19 lockdown and the pre-COVID-19 period. The results of this study revealed that all of the studied dams showed an improvement in the quality of irrigation water and a reduction in pollution levels during the COVID-19 lockdown. This was due to a decrease in industrial, anthropogenic, urban, and agricultural activities, and strict restrictions on mobility and transportation. The improvement percentage in the irrigation water quality during the lockdown based on the IWQI model was in the following order: King Talal dam > Al-Kafrein dam > Al-Wehdeh dam > Kufranja dam > Wadi Al-Arab dam > Zeqlab dam, which is similar to the order of the reduction percentage in pollution based on the IWPI model. Therefore, the results of the IWPI model are consistent with those of the IWQI model. The classification of irrigation water based on the IWQI values indicated that the irrigation water quality of Al-Wehdeh and King Talal dams changed to better categories during the lockdown. All values of physicochemical and biological parameters in the dams’ water were within the Jordanian and international (FAO) standard limits for irrigation, except for the Na concentrations in some dams that were above the FAO standards. Keywords: COVID-19; lockdown; irrigation water quality index (IWQI); irrigation water pollution index (IWPI); dams in Jordan 1. IntroductionIn Jordan, alarm bells ring, bringing distressful news about the scarcity of water. With limited water resources, Jordan is the second water-poorest country in the world. Its annual renewable water per capita is less than 100 cubic meters, well below the international severe water scarcity threshold of 500 cubic meters per capita [1]. Consequently, the country faces complex development challenges, since water resources are essential for municipal, domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses. Water is therefore among the most important pillars of Jordan’s economic and social development. Jordan’s water scarcity is exacerbated by its rising population, economic growth, degrading climatic conditions (decreasing rainfall rates and increasing temperature), a significant increase in the number of refugees due to the political and security situation in neighboring countries, and the COVID-19 pandemic-induced conditions of life. The aforementioned factors are likely to threaten the ability of Jordanian citizens to access potable water in the coming years [2].Induced by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), COVID-19 is an ongoing pandemic [3] that has left tremendous impacts on the environment and its components. As a vital component of the environment, water has been impacted by this pandemic [4,5]. On 30 January 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the rapid COVID-19 outbreak as an international public health emergency [5]. Jordan’s government declared the country’s first confirmed COVID-19 case on 2 March 2020. Subsequently, COVID-19 spread rapidly in Jordan. Most countries, including Jordan, imposed general lockdowns to avoid the spread of the coronavirus. Following these lockdowns, the water deficit in Jordan has grown as the water demand has recently increased; Jordan’s water deficit reached 40 million cubic meters (MCM) in 2021 [6]. The Jordan government has made considerable efforts to address and manage water deficit issues by developing and adopting several strategies. These include executing water harvesting projects (constructing dams), enhancing water use efficiency, reducing water losses, lowering and controlling groundwater over-extraction, and expanding and improving wastewater services, especially during the pandemic conditions of COVID-19 [2,7].The main resources that supply water in Jordan are groundwater, at about 59%; surface water, at about 27%; and treated sewage, at about 14% [1]. Dams are among the most important surface water sources in Jordan; their water is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes. All of the dams together provide around 308 MCM of the country’s water needs, while the country’s total need was approximately 1412 MCM in the year 2017 [1]. In June 2022, the total amount of water stored in Jordan’s dams was recorded as 27% (~75 MCM) of their total storage capacity, which puts the country in a critical situation concerning its increasing water demand and scarce water supply [6]. In this context, finding alternative sources of water to fill the supply/demand gap in Jordan is no less important than protecting Jordan’s limited water sources from pollution and maintaining the optimal water quality for any intended uses. The water usage of Jordan’s dams is governed by their water quality; therefore, it is necessary to protect the dams’ water from all sources of pollution in order to preserve the aquatic ecosystem and ensure the optimal use of the water. Jordan’s dams are exposed to many sources of pollution caused by industrial, agricultural, and urban activities, leading to the deterioration of their water quality [8,9]. Consequently, we must continue to conduct research on the assessment of surface water quality, particularly dam water. Furthermore, sources of pollution should be identified and monitored. Hence, this study is significant, as the study’s outcomes could be helpful to, and important for, decision-makers and relevant institutions to develop appropriate and systematic approaches for the optimal management and monitoring of water and pollution resources. Decisions taken by officials on water issues play an effective role in the protection of the environment and water sources against pollution, with positive implications for the economic and health aspects of the citizens.Several worldwide studies have been conducted to analyze the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment, particularly on water. Indeed, the side effects of the pandemic on water and the water environment can be both negative and positive [10]. Numerous recent studies have examined the positive impacts of the COVID-19 lockdown on the quality of surface water. These studies have demonstrated that surface water quality has improved, and pollution levels have reduced remarkably during the lockdown [10,11,12,13]. For instance, Pant et al. [14] analyzed the quality of the surface water in a river basin in Nepal during the lockdown and found a positive recovery in the water quality. Similar findings on rivers and lakes in Malaysia presented significant improvements in the water quality and water quality index (WQI) during the lockdown [15]. Regarding the water quality and pollution parameters of a river in Delhi, Patel et al. [16] showed that the WQI increased by 37% during the lockdown period, and that pollution parameters decreased considerably. Other studies on the Ganga river (India) demonstrated a significant improvement in river water quality during the lockdown period [17,18]. In contrast, few studies have examined the effects of the COVID-19-induced lockdown on the aquatic environment; these studies have shown improvements in the aquatic ecosystem and biodiversity [19,20]. Nevertheless, further studies are required to examine the effects of COVID-19 on aquatic ecosystems and their interactions.On the contrary, several studies have shed light on the negative effects of the COVID-19 lockdown on the water sector of a nation. For example, Sayeed et al. [21] estimated the over-consumption of water in Bangladesh during the pandemic and revealed an increase in home water consumption during the lockdown, particularly for handwashing purposes. A similar study [22] also showed that lifestyle changes during the pandemic caused a significant increase in household water consumption, mainly in the southern and eastern parts of England. Moreover, Li et al. [23] investigated water uses in California, U.S., since the start of the pandemic and during the lockdowns. They showed a reduction of 7.9% in urban water use due to the restrictions imposed on different sectors (e.g., industrial and commercial). In contrast, there was an increase of 1.4% in domestic water use. Importantly, the medications used to cure COVID-19, and the preventive measures adopted to prevent the pandemic’s outbreak, can produce wastes and chemicals which are regarded as emerging pollutants that are harmful to the aquatic environment and can contaminate water resources [20,24,25].This research will be the first in Jordan so far to focus on the quality and pollution of dams’ water during the lockdown of COVID-19. It sheds light on the impacts of anthropogenic activities on the dams’ water quality, taking advantage of the shutdown of these activities in the country during the COVID-19 lockdown. Two different models are used in the present study to evaluate the water quality and pollution of dams in Jordan.This study aims to: (1) examine the quality and pollution of irrigation water in six selected vital dams of Jordan in terms of the irrigation water quality index (IWQI) and irrigation water pollution index (IWPI), with a view to determining any changes in the water quality and pollution load between the COVID-19 lockdown and the pre-COVID-19 period; and (2) highlight the impacts of anthropogenic activities on dams’ water pollution and quality by comparing water quality and pollution in the pre-COVID-19 period, that is, during the normal state of human activities and during the COVID-19 lockdown, when most human activities were suspended. 2. Data and Methodology 2.1. Dams in JordanThere are currently 14 dams in Jordan used for domestic, municipal, and agricultural purposes. This study focused on six vital dams in Jordan (Al-Wehdeh, King Talal, Wadi Al-Arab, Al-Kafrein, Zeqlab, and Kufranja dams) (Figure 1) to identify the impacts of the COVID-19-induced lockdown on the Irrigation Water Quality Index (IWQI) and Irrigation Water Pollution Index (IWPI) of these dams. Some of the dams in Jordan, particularly in its southern areas (e.g., Al-Tanoor dam, Al-Mujib dam, Wadi Shuaib dam, and Al-Wala dam), were not selected for this study because they are exposed to drought each year (this is true particularly for 2021 and 2022) [6]. Therefore, it is not feasible to investigate the changes in their water qualities. The information pertaining to the location of dams, year of operation, capacity, types, major tributaries, watersheds, and water use are presented and summarized in Table 1. 2.2. The Dataset of the Physicochemical and Biological Parameters in the Water of the Studied Dams in JordanWe selected a total of 12 physicochemical and biological parameters to perform this study: hydrogen ion concentration—pH, electrical conductivity—EC (µs/cm), total dissolved solids—TDS (mg/L), total suspended solids—TSS (mg/L), Sodium—Na+ (mg/L), Magnesium—Mg2+ (mg/L), Calcium—Ca2+ (mg/L), Sodium absorption ratio—SAR, chloride—Cl− (mg/L), Nitrates—NO3− (mg/L), bicarbonate—HCO3− (mg/L), and Escherichia coli—E. coli. The dataset regarding the abovementioned parameters of the studied dams was obtained from Jordan’s Ministry of the Environment (MoE) (Jordan’s National Water Quality Monitoring Project) [27,28], excluding the pre-COVID-19 data on the Kufranja dam for 2019, which was obtained from the project investigating the water quality of the Kufranja dam, funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at the University of Jordan, Jordan [(No. 2202), PI: Dr. Mahmoud Abualhaija]. Specifically, this study used the dataset containing all the water quality parameters recorded for a specific period during the 2020 lockdown, along with the dataset for the same timespan in 2019, before the lockdown. According to the reports of the Ministry of Environment [27,28] and the Kufranja dam water quality project, the studied dams’ water samples were collected from the dams’ outlet points and analyzed based on the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater [29]. 2.3. Calculation of the Irrigation Water Quality Index (IWQI)Numerous water quality indices have been developed and applied to determine the relevance of water for different uses, particularly for drinking and irrigation [30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40]. In this study, the irrigation water quality index (IWQI) was calculated based on the specified model developed by Meireles et al. [30], that was used to evaluate agricultural water quality. The IWQI was calculated according to the following two main steps. The first step comprised the identification of the vital physicochemical parameters that play a significant role in water quality for irrigation; five water quality parameters were adopted, including electrical conductivity (EC), sodium absorption ratio (SAR), sodium (Na+), chloride (Cl−), and bicarbonate (HCO3−). The second step involved the determination of the water quality measurement value (Qi) and the accumulation weights (Wi) for each parameter. The value of (Qi) was figured based on the experimental value of each parameter and on the irrigation water quality parameters published by the University of California Committee of Consultants—(UCCC) and complying with the standards published by Ayers and Westcot (1999) as described in Table 2. The parameters of the water quality have been expressed by non-dimensional numbers, where the highest value corresponded to the best water quality [30].Qi values were computed using Equation (1) and from the tolerance limits presented in Table 2, and from the experimental results of the analyzed parameters. Qi = Q imax − [ ( X ij − X inf ) × Q iamp ) / X amp ] where, Qimax represents the maximum Qi value for the class; Xij is the experimental or monitored value of each parameter. Xinf is the value that corresponds to the bottom limit of the class to which the parameter belongs; Qiamp refers to the class amplitude; where the range of class (class amplitude) to which the parameter corresponds is represented by Xamp. To determine the Xamp value of the latter class of each parameter, the upper bound of the relevant class was considered as the maximum value obtained from the experimental analysis of the water samples [30].The accumulation weight (Wi) values for the parameters used in the IWQI calculation were taken from [30] (Table 3), where Wi values have been normalized and their sum equals one.IWQI was computed as the following formula (Equation (2)). IWQI = ∑ i = 1 n Qi × Wi IWQI is an index that has no dimension, ranging from 0 to 100; Qi describes the quality of the ith parameter, a function of its measurement or concentration; Wi is the normalized weight of the ith parameter, a function of its relative importance in irrigation water quality [30]. 2.4. Calculation of the Irrigation Water Pollution Index (IWPI)The model used for the calculation of the water pollution index (WPI) was developed by Hossain and Patra [41]. In this research, WPI was used to determine the water pollution index of the dams in Jordan for irrigation purposes. It is based on the recommended standard limits for irrigation uses published by the Jordan Institution for Standards and Metrology (JSMO) [42] and Food and Agriculture Organizations (FAO) [43], and is therefore named the irrigation water pollution index (IWPI).A total of 12 physicochemical and biological parameters, including pH, EC, TDS, TSS, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, SAR, Cl−, NO3−, HCO3−, and E. coli, were used in the calculation of the IWPI based on their standard permissible limits for irrigation purposes. The IWPI was calculated based on two steps: the first is to calculate the pollution load of each parameter, whereas the second is to aggregate the pollution load of all parameters and divide the sum by the number of all parameters included [41]. The pollution load (PLi) is computed using the following formula (Equation (3)): PLi = 1 + ( Ci − Si Si ) where Ci is the monitored or observed concentration of the ith parameter, Si represents the standard or maximum acceptable limit for the individual parameter based on the standard limits for irrigation purposes. The calculation of PLi for the pH has a particular case; if the value of pH is less than 7, then the following equation (Equation (4)) is recommended to calculate the PLi [41], where Sia is the minimum acceptable pH for irrigation use. PLi = Ci − 7 Si a − 7 whereas Equation (5) is suggested to compute the PLi when the pH value is greater than 7, where Sib represents the maximum permissible pH for irrigation use. PLi = Ci − 7 Si b − 7 Finally, the IWPI was computed using the formula below (Equation (6)): IWPI = 1 n ∑ i = 1 n PLi where (n) refers to the number of parameters involved.There are four categories for the classification of IWPI [41] as follows: when IWPI < 0.5, the water quality is excellent; the water quality is good if IWPI is between 0.5 to 0.75; the water is moderately polluted if it varies from 0.75 to 1; and the water is highly polluted when IWPI > 1. 3. Results and Discussions 3.1. Water Quality ParametersMost water quality parameters have revealed a decrease in their concentrations during the COVID-19-induced lockdown, as compared to their concentrations in the same time period in the previous year before the start of the pandemic (Figure 2). This finding can be ascribed to the shutdown of industrial and human activities and the slowdown of the agricultural and urban runoff, in addition to high restrictions on transportation and mobility. This lead to a considerable decrease in the pollutant and other waste discharges to the surface water bodies and facilitated the betterment of water quality [11,15,44,45,46].All physicochemical and biological parameter values in the studied dams (pH, EC, TDS, TSS, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, SAR, Cl−, NO3−, HCO3−, and E.coli) (Table 4) were within the Jordanian [42] and FAO [43] standard limits for irrigation, except the Na concentrations for the King Talal dam (pre- COVID-19 and during lockdown) and Al-Wehdeh and Al-Kafrein dams (before COVID-19), which were above the FAO irrigation standards [43]. 3.2. Irrigation Water Quality Index (IWQI) and Irrigation Water Pollution Index (IWPI)The results of IWQI using the adopted model by Meireles et al. [30] (Table 5) and the classifications of water quality based on IWQI values (Table 6) showed that the IWQI values of Al-Wehdeh Dam belonged to the moderate restriction (MR) category for irrigation pre-COVID-19 and changed to the low restriction (LR) category during the COVID-19 lockdown.The IWQI of King Talal Dam before the onset of COVID-19 fell under the category of high restriction (HR). However, with the imposition of the lockdown, its water quality changed to a moderate restriction (MR) category for irrigation. The IWQI values for the Wadi Al-Arab and Al-Kafrein dams fell in the no restriction (NR) category for irrigation for the pre-COVID-19 period as well the lockdown period. In contrast, the values of IWQI for the Zeqlab and Kufranja dams were categorized as requiring a moderate restriction (MR) for irrigation pre-COVID-19 and also during the lockdown. The categorizations of irrigation water based on the values of IWQI, in addition to the concomitant recommendations and suitable uses, are illustrated in Table 6.The results of IWPI using Equation (6) [41] (Table 7) and the water quality classifications according to IWPI values revealed that the values of IWPI in the examined dams pre-COVID-19 and during the lockdown fell under the category of “excellent for irrigation”. An exception was the IWPI value of King Talal dam, that fell under the category of “good for irrigation” pre-COVID-19 and changed to the category of “excellent for irrigation” during the lockdown.The results of water quality represented by IWQI and the pollution load specified by the IWPI (Figure 3 and Figure 4; Table 5 and Table 7) demonstrated that the irrigation water quality of the dams in Jordan had improved during the COVID-19-induced lockdown, thanks to an observed increase in the IWQI values and a decrease in the values of IWPI during the COVID-19 lockdown compared to the pre-COVID-19 period. The lockdown-induced high restrictions on many sectors and activities led to an interruption or decrease in the flow of industrial effluents and other kinds of waste to the surface water, which improved its water quality and reduced its pollution load [13,46,47]. This underscores the important role of anthropogenic activities in surface water quality changes and degradation. Consequently, immediate actions are required to reduce anthropogenic activities and their negative impacts on the environment.In the lockdown period, the largest percentage of improvement in IWQI, 10.67%, was noticed for King Talal dam followed by Al-Kafrein dam (5.46%), Al-Wehdeh dam (3.74%), Kufranja dam (3.19%), Wadi Al-Arab dam (1.81%), and Zeqlab dam (1.76%). The respective reduction percentages in the IWPI values during the lockdown arranged the dams in the following order: King Talal Dam (11.5%) > Al-Kafrein Dam (8.7%), Al-Wehdeh Dam (7.7%) > Kufranja Dam (6.3%) > Wadi Al-Arab Dam (0.4%) > Zeqlab Dam (0.3%). This arrangement was identical to the aforementioned order of improvement in the irrigation water quality of the dams studied (based on the IWQI model). Therefore, the IWPI model results were consistent with the IWQI model results.King Talal dam recorded the highest improvement percentage regarding water quality and the highest reduction in the pollution load during the lockdown (Figure 3 and Figure 4). Compared to the other dams in Jordan, King Talal dam indeed has the largest catchment area, total storage, total inflow, and total usage (Table 1), and its main tributary (Zarqa River) is located in the Zarqa River Basin (ZRB). ZRB is considered one of Jordan’s most important basins in terms of its economic, social, and agricultural importance; it has an estimated area of 4120 km2 from its upper northern point to its outlet, near the King Talal dam. Moreover, ZRB hosts more than 50% of Jordan’s population and is the hub of the majority of its industrial, agricultural and other anthropogenic activities [32,48,49]. In this light, one can explain the significant recovery in King Talal dam’s water quality during the lockdown period, where most activities were stopped, including industrial and human activities. On the other hand, Zeglab dam achieved the lowest improvement percentage regarding water quality and the lowest reduction percentage in terms of its pollution load, which may be attributed to the small catchment area of the dam compared to the other dams studied (Table 1). Besides, Zeglab dam hosts fairly fewer industrial and anthropogenic operations.The improvement in the water quality of the dams in Jordan during the lockdown period can be ascribed to the shutdown of industrial and anthropogenic activities along with urban and agricultural runoff, in addition to the constraints on transportation and mobility, which led to a considerable decrease in air pollution and thus a reduction in the level of water pollution [50]. This indicates that anthropogenic factors significantly affect the environment and are to blame for the deterioration of the dams’ water quality. Therefore, water resources, anthropogenic activities and pollution sources must be effectively managed, tracked, and monitored. Finally, the results of this research are in line with the results of several recent studies that have previously confirmed noticeable improvements and a recovery in the surface water quality of various nations during the COVID-19-induced lockdown [11,13,14,15,16,17,18,51]. 4. ConclusionsThis paper focuses on the impacts of the COVID-19-induced lockdown on the quality and pollution of irrigation water of Jordan’s dams. Two different models are adopted in this study to determine the changes in the irrigation water quality and pollution load between the COVID-19-induced lockdown phase and the pre-COVID-19 period.All the studied dams in this research show improvement regarding water quality and decreases in water pollution during the lockdown. This is evidenced by the increases in the relevant IWQI values and decreases in the involved IWPI values; this scenario can be attributed to a significant decrease in industrial, urban, and agricultural activities, as well as the high restrictions on movement and transportation during the lockdown period. Therefore, detailed studies are needed to assess the effects of human, industrial, and agricultural activities on a nation’s water quality and water pollution levels. Moreover, water resources and water pollution must be effectively managed and monitored to reduce anthropogenic impacts and their contributions to water pollution and the deterioration of water quality.All the values of the studied physicochemical and biological parameters lie within the Jordanian and also the international standard (FAO) limits for irrigation, except the sodium concentrations in some dams, which surpassed the FAO standard limits for irrigation.This study could provide helpful and worthwhile information for decision-makers to understand the current state of the dams’ water quality and pollution for better and sustainable management of water resources, especially during acute water scarcity in Jordan. Author ContributionsConceptualization, M.A.; methodology and data modeling, M.A.; investigation, M.A. and M.S.; data collection and curation, M.A. and M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, M.A.; writing—review and editing, M.A. and M.S.; funding acquisition, M.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.FundingThis research was partially funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at the University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan [Grant number: 2202].Institutional Review Board StatementNot applicable.Informed Consent StatementNot applicable.Data Availability StatementThe datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.AcknowledgmentsThe authors wish to express their profound gratitude to the Jordanian Ministry of the Environment (MoE) for providing the data and information required for this research. Special thanks go to the Deanship of Scientific Research at the University of Jordan for its financial support of the Kufranja Dam Water Quality Project (No. 2202). Thanks are also extended to the editors and anonymous reviewers for their review and constructive comments to improve this manuscript.Conflicts of InterestThe authors declare no conflict of interest.ReferencesMWI. Jordan Water Sector Facts and Figures; Ministry of Water and Irrigation: Amman, Jordan, 2017.MWI. National Water Strategy 2016–2025; Ministry of Water and Irrigation: Amman, Jordan, 2016.Dennison Himmelfarb, C.R.; Baptiste, D. Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): Implications for Cardiovascular and Socially At-risk Populations. J. Cardiovasc. Nurs. 2020, 35, 318–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]WHO. Naming the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) and the Virus That Causes It. 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[Google Scholar] [CrossRef] Sustainability 14 14596 g001 550

Figure 1. Location map of the studied dams. Figure 1. Location map of the studied dams. Sustainability 14 14596 g001

Figure 2. Physicochemical and biological parameters in the dams’ water of Jordan pre-COVID-19 and during the lockdown (D1: Al-Wehdeh dam, D2: King Talal dam, D3: Wadi Al-Arab dam, D4: Al-Kafrein dam, D5: Zeqlab dam and D6: Kufranja dam). Figure 2. Physicochemical and biological parameters in the dams’ water of Jordan pre-COVID-19 and during the lockdown (D1: Al-Wehdeh dam, D2: King Talal dam, D3: Wadi Al-Arab dam, D4: Al-Kafrein dam, D5: Zeqlab dam and D6: Kufranja dam). Sustainability 14 14596 g002

Figure 3. IWQI value of the dams pre-COVID-19 and during the lockdown period of the pandemic. Figure 3. IWQI value of the dams pre-COVID-19 and during the lockdown period of the pandemic. Sustainability 14 14596 g003

Figure 4. IWPI value of the studied dams before COVID-19 and during the lockdown period. Figure 4. IWPI value of the studied dams before COVID-19 and during the lockdown period. Sustainability 14 14596 g004

Table 1. Summarized information about the selected dams in this study [26,27,28]. Table 1. Summarized information about the selected dams in this study [26,27,28]. Name of DamLocation and CityYear of OperationCapacity (MCM)TypeMajor Tributary/Major BasinCatchment Area km2UsageAverage Storage (MCM) in 2019Total Inflow (MCM) in 2019Usage Amount (MCM) in 2019Al-Wehdeh DamNorthern highland of Jordan/Yarmouk district-Irbid City2006110Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC).Yarmouk river/Yarmouk basin5590 km2, out of which 1200 km2 on the Jordanian side.Irrigation, municipal, and industrial.32.3254.0260.33King Talal DamNorthwest of Jordan—Jerash City1977 Enlarged in 198775Earth and Rock-FillZarqa river/Zarqa basin3700Irrigation and electrical generation74.62152.7147.65Wadi Al-Arab DamJordan Valley- Irbid City198616.79Earth FillWadi Al-Arab/North Rift Side Wadis basin262Irrigation, municipal, industrial, and electrical generation9.959.919.91Al-Kafrein DamJordan Valley- Al-Balqa City1968 Extended in 19978.45Earth FillWadi Al-Kafrein/South Rift Side Wadis basin163Irrigation, and recharge7.814.6214.32Kufranja DamAjloun City20177.8Concrete-Face Rock-Fill dam (CFRD)Wadi Kufranja/North Rift Side Wadis basin99Irrigation, municipal, and recharge7.4111.810.26Zeqlab DamJordan Valley- Irbid City19643.96Earth FillWadi Zeglab/North Rift Side Wadis basin106Irrigation, municipal, and industrial0.920.590.67 Table

Table 2. Parameter limiting values for quality measurement (Qi) calculation [30]. Table 2. Parameter limiting values for quality measurement (Qi) calculation [30]. QiEC µs/cmSARNa− meq/LCl− meq/LHCO3− meq/L85–100200 ≤ EC < 7502 ≤ SAR < 32 ≤ Na < 31 ≤ Cl < 41≤ HCO3 < 1.560–85750 ≤ EC < 15003 ≤ SAR < 63 ≤ Na < 64 ≤ Cl < 71.5 ≤ HCO3 < 4.535–601500 ≤ EC < 30006 ≤ SAR < 126 ≤ Na < 97 ≤ Cl < 104.5 ≤ HCO3 < 8.50–35EC < 200 orEC ≥ 3000SAR < 2 or SAR ≥ 12Na < 2 orNa ≥ 9Cl < 1 orCl ≥ 10HCO3 < 1 or HCO3 ≥ 8.5 Table

Table 3. Weights for the IWQI parameters [30]. Table 3. Weights for the IWQI parameters [30]. ParameterWeight (Wi)EC0.211Na+0.204HCO3−0.202Cl−0.194SAR0.189Total1.000 Table

Table 4. Results of water quality parameters of the selected dams in Jordan [27,28]. Table 4. Results of water quality parameters of the selected dams in Jordan [27,28]. Pre-COVID-19 (2019)DampH(SU)EC(µs/cm)TDS(mg/L)TSS(mg/L)Na−(mg/L)Mg2+(mg/L)Ca2+(mg/L)SARCl−(mg/L)NO3−(mg/L)HCO3−(mg/L)E. coliAl-Wehdeh Dam8.4488350212.083.131.362.51.9999.02.122911King Talal Dam8.34161092011.817127.889.84.0426928.927117Wadi Al-Arab Dam8.7476941810.368.924.139.32.141137.414563.5Al-Kafrein Dam8.8980544739.370.328.632.82.1711415.685.0130Zeqlab Dam8.338504768.3035.143.364.10.8359.81.030819.5Kufranja Dam7.907514665.0029.728.554.00.8170.531.62258.7Min7.907514185.0029.724.132.80.8159.81.085.08.7Max8.89161092039.317143.389.84.0426931.6308130Mean8.4494553814.476.330.657.12.00120.814.421041.6During the COVID-19 lockdown (2020)DampH(SU)EC(µs/cm)TDS(mg/L)TSS(mg/L)Na−(mg/L)Mg2+(mg/L)Ca2+(mg/L)SARCl−(mg/L)NO3−(mg/L)HCO3−(mg/L)E. coliAl-Wehdeh Dam8.318624959.066.225.168.81.7490.61.02471.8King Talal Dam8.2513807532.014824.982.13.672193824313Wadi Al-Arab Dam9.016903603866.720.435.52.211093.910813Al-Kafrein Dam9.266823611262.726.330.32.0110635.657.24.0Zeqlab Dam8.417553701537.438.463.30.9158.61.027979Kufranja Dam7.846112923.028.923.254.00.8069.527.71724.5Min7.846112922.028.920.430.30.8058.61.057.21.8Max9.26138075338.014838.482.13.672193827979Mean8.5183043913.268.326.455.71.89108.817.9184.419.2 Table

Table 5. IWQI values of the dams in Jordan before the start of COVID-19 and during the lockdown period. Table 5. IWQI values of the dams in Jordan before the start of COVID-19 and during the lockdown period. DamIWQI Pre-COVID-19IWQI during the LockdownAl-Wehdeh Dam69.572.2King Talal Dam54.460.9Wadi Al-Arab Dam86.788.3Al-Kafrein Dam88.393.4Zeqlab Dam61.462.5Kufranja Dam63.866.0Min54.460.9Max88.393.4Mean70.773.9 Table

Table 6. Characteristics of the IWQI [30]. Table 6. Characteristics of the IWQI [30]. IWQIWater use RestrictionsRecommendation and Uses85–100No restriction (NR)May be used for the majority of soils withlow probability of causing salinity andsodicity problems, being recommended for leaching within irrigation practices,except for in soils with extremely lowpermeability.No toxicity risk for most plants70–85Low restriction (LR)Recommended for use in irrigated soilswith light texture or moderatepermeability, being recommended for salt leaching. Soil sodicity in heavy texture soils may occur, being recommended to avoid its use in soils with high clay.Avoid salt sensitive plants55–70Moderate restriction (MR)May be used in soils with moderate tohigh permeability values, beingsuggested for moderate leaching of salts.Plants with moderate tolerance to salts may be grown40–55High restriction (HR)May be used in soils with highpermeability without compact layers.High frequency irrigation scheduleshould be adopted for water with ECabove 2000 µs/cm and SAR above 7.0.Should be used for irrigation of plants with moderate to high tolerance to salts with special salinity control practices, except for water with low Na, Cl, and HCO3 values.0–40Severe restriction (SR)Should be avoided for irrigation useunder normal conditions. In specialcases, may be used occasionally. Waterwith low salt levels and high SARrequires gypsum application. In highsaline content water soils musthave high permeability, and excess water should be applied to avoid salt accumulation.Only plants with high salt tolerance, except for waters with extremely low values of Na, Cl, and HCO3. Table

Table 7. IWPI values of the dams in Jordan pre-COVID-19 and during the lockdown period. Table 7. IWPI values of the dams in Jordan pre-COVID-19 and during the lockdown period. DamIWPI Pre-COVID-19IWPI during LockdownAl-Wehdeh Dam0.2780.257King Talal Dam0.5050.446Wadi Al-Arab Dam0.2610.260Al-Kafrein Dam0.2970.272Zeqlab Dam0.2520.252Kufranja Dam0.2180.204Min0.2180.204Max0.5050.446Mean0.3020.282 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Share and Cite MDPI and ACS Style

Abualhaija, M.; Shammout, M. Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown on the Quality and Pollution of Irrigation Water in the Dams of Jordan. Sustainability 2022, 14, 14596. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114596

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Abualhaija M, Shammout M. Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown on the Quality and Pollution of Irrigation Water in the Dams of Jordan. Sustainability. 2022; 14(21):14596. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114596

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Abualhaija, Mahmoud, and Maisa’a Shammout. 2022. "Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown on the Quality and Pollution of Irrigation Water in the Dams of Jordan" Sustainability 14, no. 21: 14596. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114596

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