【简译】英国工业革命中的纺织业

纺织业如何受到工业革命的影响？

          工业革命之前，纺织业是一种家庭手工业，人们大多在家里或小作坊里制作纱线和布料。纺织业的工业化意味着机器取代了人力，大型工厂或磨坊纺纱织布取代了小作坊或家庭纺纱织布。

在工业革命期间，为什么机器会被用于纺织业？

          工业革命期间，机器被用于纺织业，因为它们通过减少劳动力成本使生产更快更便宜。

 在工业革命期间，纺织业机械化的积极后果是什么？

          工业革命期间，纺织业机械化的积极后果包括：为蒸汽动力机器提供燃料的采煤业的繁荣，更多的纺织业就业机会（尽管大多是非技术性的），以及更便宜的服装。

 在工业革命期间，纺织业的机械化产生了哪些负面影响？

          工业革命期间，纺织业机械化的消极后果包括：被机器取代的熟练纺织工人失去了工作。纺织厂的工作条件是黑暗、潮湿和危险的。

During the Industrial Revolution (1760-1840), textile production was transformed from a cottage industry to a highly mechanised one where workers were present only to make sure the carding, spinning, and weaving machines never stopped. Driven by the desire to cut costs, a long line of inventors ensured that machine factories were cheaper, faster, and more reliable than ever before.

          在工业革命（1760-1840）期间，纺织品生产从家庭手工业转变为高度机械化的工业，工人在场只是为了确保梳棉机、纺纱机和织布机永不停歇。在削减成本的驱动下，一大批发明家确保机器工厂比以往任何时候都更便宜、更快、更可靠。

The adoption of machines, typically powered by water wheels and then steam engines, meant that many skilled textile workers lost their employment, which led to protest movements such as those by the Luddites. Although new, less skilled jobs were created, the poor working conditions in the textile mills helped form the trade union movement and spur governments to pass laws that protected the well-being of those who ensured the machines kept on spinning.

          这些机器的采用通常由水轮驱动，后来由蒸汽机驱动，这意味着许多熟练的纺织工人失业，从而引发了抗议运动，如卢尔德运动。虽然创造了新的、技术含量较低的工作，但纺织厂恶劣的工作条件也推动了工会的形成，并促使政府通过法律保护那些确保机器继续运转的人的福祉。

纺织业的演变

Traditionally, yarn and cloth were bought from spinners and weavers who worked in their own homes or in small workshops. It was common for a family to divide the work, with children washing and then carding the wool, women spinning the yarn using a manual spinning wheel, and men weaving the cloth using a hand-powered loom.

          传统上，纱线和布料都是从在自己家里或小作坊里工作的纺纱工和织布工那里买来的。一个家庭通常会进行分工，孩子们洗涤和梳理羊毛，妇女们用手纺车纺线，男人们用手摇织机织布。

Production was greatly speeded up in 1733 when John Kay invented the flying shuttle, used to pull thread horizontally (weft) across longitudinal threads (warp) on a weaving frame. The shuttle, knocked across the worked material by a hammer, also permitted wider textiles to be made. The problem now was how to spin more yarn to keep pace with the faster weaving stage. The traditional spinning wheel was an efficient machine but could only spin one thread at a time. Consequently, inventors attempted to create machines that could spin multiple threads simultaneously. This would allow one operator to effectively do the work of several people. In addition, if many machines were all put in one place – a factory or mill – then production costs could be further reduced. As in many other areas of the Industrial Revolution, it was the lure of making more money that drove the move away from manual to machine labour.

          1733年，约翰·凯 (John Kay) 发明了飞梭，用于在织机上将纱线水平（纬向）拉过纵向（经向）纱线，生产速度大大加快。用锤子敲击工作材料的梭子也使制造更宽的织物成为可能。现在的问题是如何纺更多的线以跟上更快的编织阶段。传统纺车在当时是一种高效的机器，但它一次只能纺一根线。因此，发明家们试图创造能够同时纺出多条线的机器。这将使一个操作员有效地完成几个人的工作。此外，如果许多机器都放在一个地方，即一个工厂或磨坊，那么生产成本可以进一步降低。与工业革命的许多其他领域一样，是赚取更多金钱的诱惑推动了纺织业从手工劳动到机器劳动的转变。

There were many inventors and machines that pushed the textile industry forwards during the Industrial Revolution, but the most important include:

The Spinning Jenny by James Hargreaves (1764)

The Water Frame by Richard Arkwright (1769)

The Spinning Mule by Samuel Crompton (1779)

The Power Loom by Edmund Cartwright (1785)

The Cotton Gin by Eli Whitney (1794)

The Roberts' Loom by Richard Roberts (1822)

The Self-Acting Mule by Richard Roberts (1825)

Howe Sewing Machine by Elias Howe (1844)

在工业革命期间，有许多发明家和机器推动了纺织业的发展，但最重要的包括：

詹姆斯·哈格里夫斯 (James Hargreaves) 的珍妮纺纱机(1764)

理查德·阿克莱特 (Richard Arkwright)的水力纺纱机(1769年)

塞缪尔·克朗普顿的“纺纱骡子”（之所以这样命名是因为它是阿克莱特的水力纺纱机和詹姆斯·哈格里夫斯的珍妮纺纱机的混合体，就像骡子是母马与公驴杂交的产物一样）(1779)

埃德蒙·卡特赖特的动力织布机（1785年）

伊莱·惠特尼 (Eli Whitney) 的轧棉机 (1794)

理查德·罗伯茨 (Richard Roberts) 的织机(1822年)

理查德·罗伯茨的自力式“纺纱骡子”(1825)

埃利亚斯·豪的平缝缝纫机 (1844)

 詹姆斯·哈格里夫斯的珍妮纺纱机

James Hargreaves (1720-1778) invented the spinning jenny (machine) in Lancashire in 1764 (patented in 1770). The machine – essentially a spinning frame containing multiple spindles – could spin eight cotton threads at the same time, and so the potential to dramatically speed up production and cut labour costs attracted business owners. Hargreaves soon improved his jenny so that a single machine could spin 120 threads simultaneously. This evolution more than made up for the higher cost of a jenny compared to a traditional spinning wheel (70 shillings against one shilling). By 1788, factories across Britain were using over 20,000 spinning jennies. There was no going back to the old cottage industry of isolated workers in their homes, especially as many of the machines used large water wheels for their power.

          詹姆斯·哈格里夫斯（1720-1778）于1764年在兰开夏郡发明了珍妮纺纱机（1770 年获得专利）。这台机器（本质上是一个带有多个锭子的纺车）可以同时纺出八根棉线，因此其大幅提高生产速度和削减劳动力成本的潜力吸引了众多企业主。哈格里夫斯很快改进了他的珍妮机，使一台机器可以同时纺出 120 根线。这种演变弥补了珍妮机更高的成本（70 先令对 1 先令）。到1788年，英国各地的工厂已经使用了超过20,000台珍妮纺纱机。过去那种个体工人在家里工作的旧家庭手工业一去不复返了，特别是许多机器使用大型水轮作为动力。

Traditional textile workers immediately saw the threat of Hargreaves' jenny and smashed any examples they could find and, in some cases, even burnt down factories. Meanwhile, jennies were introduced to France directly from Lancashire from 1771, although they did not quite take off as they had in Britain, despite the French state subsidising their adoption. The reason may be due to wages being lower in France and so the expensive machines were a less attractive proposition for entrepreneurs. The same could also be true for India, where labour was cheaper still and where the jenny was largely ignored.

          传统的纺织工人很快便意识到珍妮机的威胁，他们砸碎了任何能找到的珍妮机，在某些情况下，甚至烧毁了工厂。与此同时，从1771年起，法国从兰开夏郡引入珍妮机，尽管法国政府为其提供补贴，但它们并没有像在英国那样完全普及。原因可能是法国的工资较低，因此昂贵的机器对企业家的吸引力较小。印度的情况也是如此，那里的劳动力更便宜，珍妮机在很大程度上被忽视了。

理查德·阿克莱特的水力纺纱机

Richard Arkwright (1732-1792), a Lancashire wigmaker, created the first water frame, a device patented in 1769. Arkwright was crucially assisted by his friend John Kay, a clockmaker (not the flying shuttle inventor) who, over a period of five years, helped him perfect the right materials to use in the machine and the gears that made it work efficiently, replacing the more cumbersome system of levers and belts. As the economic historian R. C. Allen notes, "without watch-makers, the water frame could not have been designed" (204). Britain was at the forefront of watchmaking technology, and this again explains why it was here and not in other countries where the early textile machinery was pioneered. Not coincidentally, perhaps, the heart of the British clock industry was in Lancashire, precisely where the mechanised textile industry took off.

          理查德·阿克莱特（Richard Arkwright，1732-1792） 是兰开夏郡的假发制造商，创造了第一台水力纺纱机，该设备在1769年获得了专利。阿克莱特从他的制表师朋友约翰·凯那里得到了至关重要的帮助（不是飞梭的发明者），五年来，制表师约翰·凯帮助他完善了机器的合适材料和使其高效工作的齿轮，取代了更笨重的杠杆和皮带系统。正如经济史学家罗伯特·卡森·艾伦所指出，“没有制表师，就不可能设计出水力纺纱机”（204）。英国处于制表技术的最前沿，这再次解释了为什么早期纺织机械是在这里而不是在其他国家开创的。也许并非巧合，英国钟表业的中心在兰开夏郡，正是机械化纺织业发展的地方。

Arkwright's water frame was a cotton-spinning machine where rollers performed the task that fingers and thumbs once had. It was an improvement on the spinning jenny since it produced much finer and stronger yarn. An early version was powered by a single horse and could spin 96 spindles at once. As the fully-developed machine in Arkwright's factory in Cromford on the River Derwent (far away from any textile workers for his own safety and that of his machines) was powered by a water wheel, it could run indefinitely and more smoothly than hand-worked machines.

          阿克莱特的水力纺纱机是一种纺棉机，其中滚筒执行以前由手指和拇指完成的工作。它是对珍妮纺纱机的改进，因为它生产的线更细、更结实。早期版本由一匹马提供动力，一次可以纺 96 个锭子。由于阿克莱特在德温特河上的克罗姆福德工厂中完全开发的机器（为了他们自身和机器的安全，远离任何纺织工人）是由水轮驱动的，它可以无限期地运行，而且比手工操作的机器更平稳。

The 1771 version of Arkwright's water frame had 129 spindles and was operated by women since skilled male textile workers were no longer needed. The factory model of Cromford with its machines, layout, rationalised production process, provision of power on multiple floors, and full-time operations was copied in factories across the north of England, with Arkwright making a fortune by insisting buyers order no fewer than 1,000 of his machines at a time (or more accurately, the right to build them). The Cromford factory model was copied, too, in the United States and Germany. Arkwright also greatly improved his wealth by inventing a carding machine (patented in 1775), an invention that provided better quality source material for the spinning machines. The carding machine actually cut labour costs far more than the water frame.

          1771年版的阿克莱特水力纺纱机有129个纱锭，由于不再需要熟练的男性纺织工人，所以由妇女操作。克罗姆福德工厂模式，其机器、布局、流线型生产流程、多工厂供电和全职运营，在英格兰北部的工厂中被大量复刻，阿克莱特坚持要求买家一次订购不少于1000台他的机器（或者更准确地说，是建造这些机器的权利），从而发了财。美国和德国也复制了克罗姆福德工厂模式。阿克莱特还通过发明梳棉机（1775年获得专利）大大增加了财富，这项发明为纺纱机提供了更优质的原料。梳棉机实际上比水力纺纱机更能削减劳动成本。

塞缪尔·克朗普顿的“纺纱骡子”

Samuel Crompton invented the spinning mule in 1779, an improved combination of Hargreaves' jenny and Arkwright's water frame that made finer and more uniform yarn. The machine could measure up to 46 metres (150 ft) in length and massively increased the number of available spindles. A single machine could have 1,320 spindles but was complex and needed three workers to operate it. The invention was a huge success, and by the 1790s, they were steam-powered. A single factory might have 60 of the machines, and soon there were 50 million mule spindles spinning away in Lancashire.

          塞缪尔·克朗普顿于1779年发明了纺纱骡子，这是哈格里夫斯的珍妮机和阿克莱特的水力纺纱机的改进组合，可以制造更细更均匀的纱线。这种机器的长度可达46米（150英尺），大大增加了可用的锭子数量。一台机器可以有1320个锭子，但很复杂，需要三个工人来操作它。这项发明取得了巨大的成功，到18世纪90年代，它们都是以蒸汽为动力的。一家工厂可能有60台这种机器，很快兰开夏郡就有 5000 万锭纺纱机。

埃德蒙·卡特赖特的动力织布机

The next development was the power loom weaving machine, invented by Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823) in 1785. Cartwright was a former clergyman, and he was inspired to create the water- and then steam-powered loom after visiting a factory in Derbyshire. The fully automated machine only needed a single worker to change the full spindles every seven minutes or so. Cartwright's machine doubled the speed of cloth production but was not all that efficient; subsequent inventors worked on this problem with success, but Cartwright's theoretical principles were sound, and he himself never stopped improving his invention. The power loom was first used effectively in factories owned by Richard Arkwright. Textile factories across the country soon equipped themselves with hundreds of power looms. The British government awarded Cartwright £10,000 in 1809 in thanks for the significant contribution the power loom made to British industry. In 1821, Cartwright was made a Fellow of the Royal Society.

          动力织布机，由埃德蒙·卡特赖特（1743-1823）于1785年发明。卡特赖特曾是一名牧师，在参观了德比郡的一家工厂后，他受到启发，创造了水力和蒸汽驱动的织机。这种完全自动化的机器只需要一个工人每隔7分钟左右更换一次全部纱锭。卡特赖特的机器使布匹生产的速度提高了一倍，但效率却不尽如人意；后来的发明家们在这个问题上的努力取得了成功，但卡特赖特的理论原则是合理的，他本人也从未停止过对其发明的改进。动力织机首先在理查德·阿克莱特的工厂中得到有效使用。全国各地的纺织厂很快配备了数百台动力织机。1809年，英国政府授予卡特赖特10,000英镑，以感谢动力织机对英国工业做出的重大贡献。1821年，卡特赖特成为皇家学会会员。

惠特尼的轧棉机

As the methods of the spinners had to keep up with those of the weavers, so, too, those who supplied the raw cotton had to increase their production to meet the booming demand. Eli Whitney (1765-1825) from Massachusetts, USA, moved to a cotton plantation in Georgia where he created a way to efficiently separate the sticky seeds from cotton balls. Whitney's Cotton Gin ('gin' meaning 'machine') was invented in 1794 and was powered by horses or water wheels. It pulled raw cotton through a comb mesh where a combination of revolving metal teeth and hooks separated it and removed the troublesome seeds. A single cotton gin could process up to 25 kg (55 lbs) of cotton every day. Just like Crompton and Cartwright, Whitney's invention was a victim of its own success and was so widely copied that he made little money from it himself, despite registering it with the patent office. As cotton production rocketed, so more and more slaves were used on the cotton plantations to pick the cotton balls that fed the insatiable gins. Cotton was exported far and wide. In Britain in 1790, cotton accounted for 2.3% of total imports; by 1830, that figure had rocketed to 55%. British textile mills worked the raw material and exported it out again with such success that cotton textiles accounted for half of Britain's total exports in 1830.

          正如纺纱工的方法必须跟上织布工的方法一样，原棉供应商也必须增加产量以满足不断增长的需求。来自美国马萨诸塞州的伊莱·惠特尼（1765-1825）搬到了佐治亚州的一个棉花种植园，在那里他发明了一种有效分离粘性种子与棉球的方法。惠特尼的轧棉机（' gin '意为'机器'）发明于1794年，由马或水轮驱动。它它通过梳状筛网输送原棉，旋转金属齿和钩子的组合将原棉分开并去除麻烦的种子。一台轧棉机每天可以处理多达25公斤（55磅）的棉花。就像克朗普顿和卡特赖特一样，惠特尼的发明成为了他自己成功的牺牲品，尽管他已经在专利局注册了专利，但他自己只从中赚了很少的钱。随着棉花产量的飙升，种植园雇用的奴隶数量也在增加，他们负责采摘棉球供给似乎永不停工的轧棉机。棉花被出口到很远很远的地方。1790年的英国，棉花占总进口量的2.3%；到1830年，这个数字已经飙升到55%。英国纺织厂对原材料进行加工，并再次出口，取得了巨大成功，1830年，棉纺织品占英国出口总额的一半。

Now, all three branches of the textile industry – raw material production, spinning, and weaving – could be fully mechanised, but still, the search for efficiency and great profits spurred on the inventors. Textile manufacturing was now big business despite the high costs to set up a machine factory, around £15,000 in 1793 (over $2 million today). As Allen notes, "Cotton was the wonder industry of the Industrial Revolution" (182).

          纺织工业的所有三个分支（原材料生产、纺纱和织布）都完全机械化，但即便如此，对效率和高利润的追求仍然刺激着发明家们。尽管建立一个机器工厂的成本很高，在1793 年的成本约为15,000英镑（今天超过200万美元），但纺织品制造是大生意。正如艾伦所指出的，“棉花是工业革命的奇迹产业”（182）。

罗伯茨的织布机

The first cast-iron loom powered by steam was invented by Richard Roberts (1789-1864) in 1822. Using iron instead of wood (as in Cartwright's loom) meant that the machine did not warp, and so the tension of the yarns was kept constant. There were now much fewer instances of yarns snapping or becoming so loose they got tangled in the machinery. This meant that the production of woven cloth was faster than ever.

          第一台蒸汽动力铸铁织机由理查德·罗伯茨 (Richard Roberts, 1789-1864) 于 1822 年发明。通过使用铁代替木头（如卡特赖特的织机），机器不会翘曲，因此线的张力保持恒定。纱线断裂或变得松散而被机器缠住的情况大大减少。这意味着织布机的生产效率比以前更快。

The inventors kept on improving the machines, both in Britain and in other countries. From the 1790s, the British government prohibited the export of machinery to safeguard its competitive advantage, but, nevertheless, machines were smuggled out and used to set up mills in France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The machines were more efficient than ever, and this meant that, despite the capital outlay required to acquire them, they became profitable even in places with much lower labour costs than in Britain.

          发明者们不断改进机器，在英国和其他国家都是如此。从17世纪90年代起，英国政府禁止出口机器，以保障其竞争优势，但尽管如此，机器还是被走私出去，用于在法国、比利时和荷兰建立工厂。这些机器比以往任何时候都更有效率，这意味着，尽管购买这些机器需要资本支出，但即使在劳动力成本比英国低得多的地方，它们也能获得可观的利润。

A notable addition to a textile factory's repertoire was the calico (cheap cotton material) printing machine of c. 1780, which permitted patterned textiles to be made using pre-punched cards. The Frenchman Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1752-1834) developed a machine that could create patterned silk fabric around 1800, also using pre-cut cards. The Jacquard loom was adopted almost everywhere textiles were made.

          1780 年左右的印花布（廉价棉质材料）压花机使使用预打孔卡片印刷织物成为可能，这是纺织厂的一项重要工作。法国人约瑟夫·马里·雅卡尔（1752-1834）在1800年左右开发了一种可以制作印花丝绸织物的机器，也是使用预先切割的卡片。几乎所有生产布料的地方都采用了提花织机。

罗伯茨的自力式“纺纱骡子”（自动纺纱机）

Richard Roberts continued to work on mechanised looms, and he came up with something new in 1825. Roberts' creative spirit was perhaps driven by self-interest since, once again, weaving had leapt forward thanks to his loom and spinning could not keep up and supply the yarns the weavers needed. These limited sales of the Roberts Loom. Roberts created a spinning machine that could run with very little input from humans, meaning they could run around the clock. The machine used gears, cranks, and a guide mechanism to ensure that yarn was always placed exactly where it should be and that spindles turned at varying speeds depending on how full they were (hence the machine's 'self-acting' name). Roberts' loom and mule combined provided mill owners with exactly what they had wanted: a factory floor with as few humans in it as possible.

          理查德·罗伯茨继续研究动力织机，他在1825年想出了一些新东西。罗伯茨的创造精神也许是受自身利益的驱使，因为由于他的织机，纺织业再次飞跃发展，而纺纱厂却无法跟上并供应织工所需的纱线。这限制了罗伯茨织机的销售。罗伯茨发明了一台纺纱机，只需很少的人力投入即可运行，这意味着它可以一天 24 小时不间断运行。该机器使用齿轮、曲柄和导向机构来确保螺纹始终准确定位在应有的位置，并且主轴根据它们的负荷程度以可变速度旋转（因此该机器被称为“自动”）。罗伯茨的织机和纺机相结合，为工厂主提供了他们想要的东西：少人工厂车间。

By 1835, around 75% of cotton mills were using steam power, and there were well over 50,000 power looms being used in Britain. A steam-powered factory did not need to be located near a water source, so better sites could be chosen close to natural resources like coal. With ever more versatile, cheaper, efficient, and reliable machines, the textile industry had become almost completely automated, certainly to the extent that machine operators no longer needed any textile skills. Skilled workers lost their jobs to semi-skilled labourers, but there were more of the latter than the former thanks to the growth in the textile industry.

          到1835年，大约75%的棉纺厂由蒸汽提供动力，英国有超过50,000台动力织机在使用。以蒸汽为动力的工厂不需要靠近水源，因此可以选择靠近煤炭等自然资源运输更好的地点。随着越来越多的多功能、廉价、高效和可靠的机器的出现，纺织业几乎已经完全自动化，当然，机器操作员不再需要任何纺织技能。熟练工人的工作被半熟练工人取代，且由于纺织业的发展，后者比前者数量更多。

The British mechanized textile industry could now better its main rival India in production, and so exports boomed. Labour in India was cheap, but the British machines were faster, producing in 2,000 hours what an Indian 'factory' needed 50,000 hours to achieve. In short, the British "cotton mill of 1836 was so efficient that it could out-compete hand spinning anywhere in the world" (Allen, 187).

          英国的机械化纺织业在当时可以在生产上比其主要竞争对手印度更胜一筹，因此出口蓬勃发展。印度的劳动力很便宜，但英国的机器速度更快，在2000小时内就能生产出印度“工厂”需要50,000小时才能完成的产品。简而言之，英国“1836年的棉纺厂是如此高效，以至于它可以在世界任何地方胜过手纺”（艾伦，187）。

埃利亚斯·豪的平缝缝纫机

Elias Howe (1819-1867) invented a new type of sewing machine in Cambridge in the United States in 1844 (patented in 1846). It was the first machine to use the lockstitch (where there are two threads put in the cloth, one from below and one from above). The lockstitch made textiles much stronger since even if the thread broke the whole line of stitches did not unravel. The machine was far quicker than a person sewing by hand – 640 stitches per minute compared to the average of 23 by hand. Consequently, "a calico dress took around six and a half hours to make by hand but just under an hour by machine. The clothing industry was completely revolutionised" (Forty, 149). There were soon imitation companies, notably that owned by Isaac Merritt Singer, who was obliged to pay royalties to Howe and give him a share in I. M. Singer and Co., a company which went on to become one of the leading sewing machine manufacturers, selling some half a million machines each year by 1870. Howe kept on developing his idea, making smaller machines and adding a power source from a foot pedal, which meant that the textile industry went full circle, and once again, people had the opportunity to produce clothes and other textiles in their own homes.

          埃利亚斯·豪（1819-1867）于1844年在美国剑桥发明了一种新型缝纫机（1846年获得专利）。这是第一台使用平缝的机器（在布上有两根线，一根在下面，一根在上面）。锁眼线使纺织品更加牢固，因为即使线断了，整条线也不会解开。机器比手工缝纫快得多：每分钟 640 针，而手工平均为 23 针。因此，“手工制作一件印花布连衣裙大约需要六个半小时，而机器只需不到一个小时，服装业彻底发生了革命性变化”（Forty，149）。很快就出现了一些模仿的公司，特别是艾萨克·梅瑞特·辛格（Isaac Merritt Singer）的公司，他不得不向豪（Howe）支付版税，并在I. M. Singer and Co.公司中给他股份，这家公司后来成为领先的缝纫机制造商之一，到1870年每年销售约50万台机器。豪继续发展他的想法，制造更小的机器，并增加了来自脚踏板的动力源，这意味着纺织业发展了一圈，人们再一次有机会在自己家里生产衣服和其他纺织品。

影响：勒德分子

Machines meant textile products were cheaper to buy for everyone, and supply industries like the cotton plantations and coal mines boomed. The increase in the number of factories meant many new jobs were created, albeit largely unskilled work. The populations of cities and towns like Manchester, Liverpool, Sheffield, and Halifax increased ten times over in the 19th century as people in the countryside flocked to cramped and unsanitary urban centres to find work.

          多亏了机器，纺织品对每个人来说都更便宜了，棉花种植园和煤矿开采等供应行业也蓬勃发展。工厂数量的增加意味着创造了许多新的就业机会，尽管大部分是非技术性工作。曼彻斯特、利物浦、谢菲尔德和哈利法克斯等城镇的人口在19世纪增加了10倍，因为农村的人们纷纷涌向拥挤且不卫生的城市寻找工作。

The arrival of machines put a lot of skilled textile workers out of a job, and many protested violently against the loss of their livelihood or the reduction in their wages. In the great manufacturing cities of Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Nottinghamshire between 1811 and 1816, a new protest group emerged, the Luddites, named after their mythical leader Ned Ludd, aka King Ludd. The Luddites broke into factories and smashed the machines that had taken away their jobs. The Establishment fought back. Handsome cash rewards were offered for information on or for the capture of Luddites, and the army was called in to protect factories and their owners. Those protestors who were caught faced harsh penalties that included hanging or deportation to Australia.

          机器的到来使许多熟练的纺织工人失去了工作，许多人对失去生计或工资的减少进行了激烈抗议。1811年至1816年间，在约克郡、兰开夏郡和诺丁汉郡的大型制造业城市，出现了一个新的抗议团体——勒德派，以其神话中的领袖内德·路德（又名路德国王）命名。勒德分子闯入工厂，砸毁了抢走他们饭碗的机器。当权者进行了反击。他们提供了丰厚的现金奖励，以获取有关勒德分子的情报或将其抓获，并召集军队保护工厂及其业主。那些被抓住的抗议者面临着严厉的惩罚，包括绞刑或被驱逐到澳大利亚。

工作条件和工会

Workers in textile mills had to put up with difficult conditions. Not only were the machines noisy and sometimes dangerous when they failed (falling heavy parts and shuttles flying out like missiles with alarming regularity), but in order to keep the cotton thread supple and strong, the atmosphere in a factory was deliberately kept warm and damp. Such conditions meant that many workers suffered health problems, particularly with their lungs.

          纺织厂的工人不得不忍受艰苦的条件。不仅机器噪音大，有时故障时还很危险（沉重的零件和梭子像子弹一样经常掉下来，令人震惊），而且为了保持棉线的柔韧性和强度，工厂环境有意保持温暖和潮湿。在这种情况下，许多工人出现了健康问题，尤其是肺部问题。

A working day in a factory was long, typically 12 hours and included night work as factories and their machines worked around the clock. Many employers preferred women and children to men as they were cheaper. Children were employed, too, because they could crawl under the machines to clear up cotton waste and prevent hanging threads clogging the machinery, all too often a lethal task. As money and efficiency became the obsession of many mill owners, workers were increasingly pressured to work faster and not cause delays in production. There were fines for workers with dirty hands or those who took too long on a toilet break.

         工厂的工作日很长，通常为12小时，包括夜间工作，因为工厂及其机器昼夜不停地工作。许多雇主喜欢妇女和儿童而不是男人，因为成本更低。儿童也被雇用，因为他们可以爬到机器下面，清理棉花废料，防止挂线堵塞机器，这往往是一项致命的任务。随着金钱和效率成为许多工厂主的执念，工人们越来越多地受到压力，要求他们加快工作速度，不要造成生产延误。手脏的工人或上厕所时间过长的工人会被罚款。

All of these negatives meant that workers eventually grouped together to protect their interests. Trade unions were formed to try and curb the greater abuses from unscrupulous employers. Unions collected funds to help those who were ill or injured and so unable to work or be paid. Owners did not like these limits on their profits, and the government banned trade unions between 1799 and 1824, but the movement to protect workers could not be stopped indefinitely.

          所有这些消极方面使工人们最终为了维护自己的利益而结成联盟。工会的成立是为了阻止不道德的雇主进一步滥用职权。工会筹集资金帮助无法工作或无法获得报酬的病人或受伤者。业主们不喜欢这些对其利润的限制，政府在1799年至1824年间取缔了工会，但保护工人的运动不会无限期地停止。

Several acts of Parliament were passed from 1833 to try, not always successfully, to limit employers' exploitation of their workforce and lay down minimum standards. New regulations included the minimum age children could work, the length of shifts, the prohibition of night work for women and children, the obligation for owners to build protective screens for the more dangerous machines, and the appointment of government inspectors. Textile factories offered valuable employment, but they remained noisy, dangerous, and unhealthy places to spend most of one's waking hours in. The poet William Blake's 1808 description of factories as "dark satanic mills" (Horn, 52), sadly, remained apt long after the Industrial Revolution had passed.

          从1833年起，议会通过了几项法案，试图限制雇主对其劳动力的剥削，并制定最低标准，但并不总是成功。新的规定包括儿童可以工作的最低年龄、轮班时长、禁止妇女和儿童上夜班、业主有义务为更危险的机器建造保护屏，以及任命政府检查员。纺织厂提供了宝贵的就业机会，但它们仍然是嘈杂、危险和不健康的地方，一个人醒着的大部分时间都在那里度过。诗人威廉·布莱克 在1808年将工厂描述为“黑暗的撒旦工厂”（Horn，52），可悲的是，在工业革命结束后的很长一段时间里，这句话依然适用。

参考书目：

Allen, Robert C. The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Armstrong, Benjamin. Britain 1783-1885. Hodder Education, 2020.

Dugan, Sally & Dugan, David. The Day the World Took Off. Channel 4 Book, 2023.

Forty, Simon. 100 Innovations of the Industrial Revolution. Haynes Publishing UK, 2019.

Hepplewhite, Peter. All About. Wayland, 2016.

Horn, Jeff. The Industrial Revolution. ABC-CLIO, 2016.

Shelley et al. Industrialisation and Social Change in Britain. PEARSON SCHOOLS, 1970.

Yorke, Stan. The Industrial Revolution Explained& Massive Wheels. Countryside Books, 2005.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

          驻意大利的历史作家。他的主要兴趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神话和发现所有文明的共同思想。他拥有政治哲学硕士学位，是《世界历史百科全书》的出版总监。