历史｜现代希腊国家的建立

背景：希腊独立战争

Background: Greek War of Independence

在奥斯曼帝国统治希腊的过程中发生了几次不成功的叛乱（最重要的发生在1770-1771年），第一个彻底的有组织的计划于1814年开始形成，当时希腊爱国者在敖德萨建立了“朋友协会”（Filiki Eteria）。该协会在1821年春天发起了独立战争，同时在希腊爆发了起义，并取得了一些初步的胜利，例如解放了伯罗奔尼撒半岛。

After several unsuccessful rebellions throughout the Ottoman rule of the Greek territories (with the most important taking place in 1770-1771), the first thoroughly organised plan started to take shape in 1814, when the "Society of Friends" (Filiki Eteria) was founded in Odessa by Greek patriots. The Society initiated the War of Independence in the spring of 1821, with simultaneous uprisings breaking out across Greece, leading to some initial successes, such as the liberation of the Peloponnese.

但奥斯曼的报复很快给了反叛者沉重的打击，同时这也在西方国家引起了对希腊的声援，尤其是在无辜平民被屠杀的情况下。1825年，来自埃及的易卜拉欣·帕夏的强大军队前来援助苏丹，并对希腊人民犯下了暴行。然而，反叛者继续抵抗，直到欧洲盟国最终决定站在希腊一边并出面进行干预。

Ottoman retaliations soon dealt heavy blows to the rebels, which however also engendered solidarity for the Greek cause in Western countries, especially in the cases of civilian massacres. In 1825, the powerful armies of Ibrahim Pasha from Egypt came to the aid of the Sultan, committing atrocities against the Greek population. The rebels would however keep up their resistance, until the European allied powers finally decided to intervene on the side of the Greeks.

1827年伦敦条约

The 1827 Treaty of London

渐渐的，西方国家政府开始改变中立的立场，一方面是受公众舆论和令人印象深刻的希腊文化浪潮的推动，另一方面是出于他们对于自己国家在该地区长远利益的考量。

Governments in the West began to gradually shift their neutral stance, motivated on the one hand by public opinion and the impressive wave of philhellenism, and on the other by changing views on the best way to further their interests in the region.

1827年，当时的三大强国——大不列颠及爱尔兰联合王国、法兰西王国和俄罗斯帝国——开始就一项条约进行谈判，该条约旨在“约定各方冲突势力重建和平协议”。同年7月6日《伦敦条约》被签署，呼吁立即停战，并规定建立希腊作为一个国家，作为“土耳其的属地”。该条约被苏丹拒绝，导致了1827年10月20日的纳瓦里诺海战，盟军舰队在海战中取得了对奥斯曼-埃及舰队的决定性胜利。

In 1827, the three Great powers of the time – the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, The Kingdom of France and the Russian Empire – began negotiations on a treaty to "re-establish peace between the contending parties by means of an arrangement". The Treaty of London, signed on 6 July of that same year, called for an immediate armistice and provided for the creation of a Greek state as "a dependency of Turkey". The treaty was rejected by the Sultan, leading to the naval Battle of Navarino, on 20 October 1827, where the allied fleet secured a decisive victory against the Ottoman–Egyptian armada.

战斗结束后，英国外交大臣和法国及俄罗斯驻圣詹姆斯法院的大使召开了伦敦会议，以确定，希腊，作为一个自治国家的边界。

At the aftermath of the battle, the British Foreign Secretary and the French and Russian ambassadors to the court of St. James convened the London conference, to determine the borders of an autonomous Greek state.

The Battle of Navarino by Ivan Aivazovsky, 1846, Naval Engineering High School V. I. Lenin

纳瓦里诺海战， 伊万·艾瓦佐夫斯基（Ivan Aivazovsky）所绘，1846年，列宁海军工程高中

1828年伦敦协议

The 1828 London Protocol

尽管奥斯曼舰队在纳瓦里诺遭受了重大损失，但高门（High Porte）拒绝承认希腊以任何形式的自治，并要求叛乱分子完全投降。希腊的大部分土地那时仍然被奥斯曼和埃及军队占领。

Despite the heavy losses the Ottoman fleet suffered in Navarino, the High Porte refused to recognise any form of autonomy for Greece and demanded the full submission of the insurgents. The majority of the Greek lands were still occupied by Ottoman and Egyptian forces.

然而，独立国家的概念已经大获势头，因为（如克劳利C.P. Crawley所说）三个大国中的每一支力量“都是因为害怕给对方进一步的干涉找借口”。公众舆论强烈支持希腊人，纳瓦里诺战役的结果激化了这种情绪。此外，自1827年4月3日以来，希腊第三届国民议会设立了希腊总督一职，并选举当时最杰出的希腊人、俄罗斯前外交部长约安尼斯·卡波德里亚斯（Ioannis Kapodistrias）伯爵为行政部门成员来主持行政部门，此人具有高超的外交技巧和国际联系。

However, the concept of an independent state had already gained momentum, since (as C.P. Crawley has put it) each of the three Powers "was driven in that direction by the fear of allowing the other an excuse for further interference". Public opinion strongly supported the Greeks, and the outcome of the Navarino Battle had reinforced that sentiment. Also, since 3 April 1827, the Third Greek National Assembly had created the office of Governor of Greece to preside over the Executive, to which it elected the then most distinguished Greek, Count Ioannis Kapodistrias, former Foreign Minister of Russia, a person with great diplomatic skills and international links.

作为对俄罗斯参与纳瓦里诺战役的回应，苏丹禁止俄罗斯船只进入达达尼尔海峡，这导致了1828-1829年的俄土战争，最终俄罗斯获胜。1828年8月，在征得威灵顿（Wellington）勉强同意后，尼古拉-约瑟夫·梅松（Nicolas-Joseph Maison）将军率领的法国远征军被派往伯罗奔尼撒半岛，目的是将奥斯曼-埃及占领军驱逐出该地区；到11月初，他们的目标已经实现，同时希腊军队也开始重新占领希腊中部地区。

In response to the Russian participation in the Navarino Battle, the Sultan closed the strait of Dardanelles (Hellespont) to Russian ships, leading to the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, which ended in Russian victory. In August of 1828, after securing Wellington’s reluctant consent, a French expeditionary corps led by General Nicolas-Joseph Maison was dispatched in the Peloponnese with the aim of expelling the Ottoman-Egyptian occupation forces from the region; by early November, their goal had been achieved, while the Greek forces had also begun recapturing the region of Central Greece.

三位前驻高门大使奉命在波罗斯岛召开会议，就希腊边界问题达成最终协议。参与谈判的卡波迪斯（Kapodistrias）提出了包括今天希腊北部大部分地区的边界。大使们最终定居在北部边境，包括塞萨利和伊庇鲁斯的部分地区；他们还提议将克里特岛包括在内。威灵顿拒绝了会议的报告，更愿意将这个新生的国家局限于伯罗奔尼撒半岛。

The three former ambassadors to the High Porte were instructed to convene on the island of Poros, to reach a final agreement on the borders of Greece. Kapodistrias, who took part in the negotiations, proposed borders which would include a large part of modern-day Northern Greece. The ambassadors finally settled on a northern border which included parts of Thessaly and Epirus; they also proposed the inclusion of Crete. Wellington rejected the Conference's report, preferring to confine the nascent state to the Peloponnese.

1828年11月16日，三个大国签署了第一份伦敦议定书，该议定书在奥斯曼帝国的宗主权下建立了一个希腊支流国家，仅限于伯罗奔尼撒半岛（当时称为莫雷阿）和基克拉迪斯群岛。然而，苏丹再次拒绝了这项协议。

On 16 November 1828, the three Great Powers signed the first London Protocol which created a tributary Greek state under Ottoman suzerainty, limited to the Peloponnese (then called Morea) and the Cyclades islands. However, the agreement was again rejected by the sultan.

General Maison and Ibrahim Pasha meet in Navarino in September 1828 by Jean-Charles Langlois,1838-1848, Versailles collections

梅松将军和易卜拉欣·帕夏（Ibrahim Pasha）于1828年9月在纳瓦里诺碰面，珍-查尔斯·朗格瓦（Jean-Charles Langlois）所绘，1838-1848年，凡尔赛宫馆藏

1829年伦敦协议

The 1829 London Protocol

《1828年议定书》于1829年3月22日通过签署第二份《伦敦议定书》而得到修正，该议定书在很大程度上接受了波罗斯会议的建议。该议定书由英国外交大臣乔治·汉密尔顿-戈登（George Hamilton-Gordon）、阿伯丁第四伯爵、法国和俄罗斯特使朱尔斯·德·波利尼亚克（Jules de Polignac）和克里斯托弗·冯·列文（Christoph vonLieven）签署。根据该协议，希腊将在由列强选出的世袭基督教王子的统治下享有完全自治，但仍将承认苏丹的宗主权，并每年向奥斯曼帝国缴纳大量贡品。

The Protocol of 1828 was amended on 22 March 1829 by the signature of the second London Protocol, which largely accepted the Poros Conference's recommendations. The Protocol was signed by the British Foreign Minister, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen, and the envoys of France and Russia, Jules de Polignac and Christoph von Lieven. According to it, Greece would enjoy complete autonomy under the rule of a hereditary Christian prince to be selected by the Powers, but would still recognise the suzerainty of the Sultan and pay a large annual tribute to the Ottoman Empire.

随着俄土战争的继续，苏丹面临几次失败，被迫寻求和平。1829年9月14日，两国签署了《阿德里亚诺条约》，该条约迫使高门承认希腊的自治，并接受伦敦会议达成的协商。1829年9月12日，希腊独立战争的最后一场战役是佩特拉战役，德米特里奥斯·伊普西兰蒂斯（Demetrios Ypsilantis）在这场战役中取得了辉煌的胜利。

As the Russo-Turkish War continued, the Sultan faced several defeats and was compelled to sue for peace. On 14 September 1829 the two countries signed the Treaty of Adrianople, which forced the High Porte to recognise the autonomy of Greece and accept the decision which would be reached by the London Conference. On 12 September 1829, the Battle of Petra, where Demetrios Ypsilantis secured a glorious victory, was to be the last one in the Greek War of Independence.

Brig "Mercury" Attacked by Two Turkish Ships (in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829) by Ivan Aivazovsky, 1892, Feodosia Art Gallery

（1828-1829俄土战争中）水星号帆船遭到两艘土耳其船只的袭击， 伊万·艾瓦佐夫斯基（Ivan Aivazovsky）所绘， 1892，费奥多西亚美术馆

1830年伦敦协议

The 1830 London Protocol

卡波迪斯（Kapodistrias）对希腊作为附庸国的决定不满意，并游说列强让希腊独立。威灵顿（Wellington）最终也相信，与一个独立国家相比，一个部分自治的国家会更大程度处于俄罗斯的影响下。

Kapodistrias was not satisfied with the decision for a vassal Greek state, and lobbied the Great Powers for Greek independence. Wellington was also eventually convinced that a partly autonomous sate would be under greater Russian influence than an independent one.

因此，随着1830年2月3日第三份《伦敦议定书》的签署，第二份《伦敦议定书》得到了修订，该议定书宣布希腊是一个受三个大国共同保护的独立主权国家。在其11篇的第一条中，宣布“希腊将组成一个独立的国家，并享有完全独立所附带的一切政治、行政和商业权利”。

The second London Protocol was thus revised with the signing of the third London Protocol on 3 February 1830, which declared Greece an independent, sovereign state under the joint protection of the three Powers. In the first of its 11 articles, it is proclaimed that "Greece shall form an independent State, and shall enjoy all the rights, political, administrative, and commercial, attached to complete independence".

在议定书第二篇中界定了希腊的边界，即阿斯普罗波塔莫斯-斯珀歇奥斯线（Aspropotamos–Spercheios）。三个大国还指定萨克森-科堡的利奥波德王子（Leopold）(未来的比利时国王）为他们选择的希腊君主；利奥波德拒绝了这一提议，因为商定的边界没有达到波罗斯会议上商定的边界。

The second article defined Greece’s borders, which were reduced to the Aspropotamos–Spercheios line. The three Powers also designated Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg (the future King of Belgium) as their choice of Sovereign Prince of Greece; Leopold declined the offer, due to the fact that the agreed borders fell short of those agreed to at the Poros Conference.

余波

Aftermath

只要王位仍然空着，卡波迪斯（Kapodistrias）总督就是希腊国家的首脑，处理重要的事务，例如建立行政机构、基本的基础设施和第一种希腊货币。他在1831年10月9日被暗杀后，由他的兄弟继任，后者在六个月后辞职；随后，一系列集体管理委员会成立，内乱使希腊陷入混乱。

As long as the throne remained empty, Governor Kapodistrias was the head of the Hellenic State, dealing with important tasks, such as the establishment of an administration, basic infrastructure and the first Greek currency. After his assassination on 9 October 1831, he was succeeded by his brother, who resigned six months later; a series of collective governing councils were then established, and civil strife plunged Greece into confusion.

1832年5月，英国外交大臣帕默斯顿（Palmerston）召开了1832年伦敦会议，成立了希腊王国，再次根据1829年的议定书修订了边界。

王位被授予了巴伐利亚国王路德维希一世的儿子威特斯巴赫的年轻的奥托（Otto）王子，他也得到了第五届国民议会的批准。这些决定在君士坦丁堡条约中得到批准，据此正式宣布战争结束，奥斯曼帝国正式承认独立的希腊王国。 奥托（Otto）于1833年2月到达，作为一个绝对君主统治，直到1843年9月3日革命，就这样独立的希腊诞生了第一部宪法。

In May 1832, British Foreign Secretary Palmerston convened the London Conference of 1832, which established the Kingdom of Greece, once more revising its borders according to the Protocol of 1829. The throne was offered to the young Prince Otto of Wittelsbach, son of King Ludwig I of Bavaria, who had also been approved by the Fifth National Assembly at Nafplion. The decisions were ratified in the Treaty of Constantinople, by which the end of the war was officially declared and the Ottoman Empire officially recognized the independent Greek kingdom. Otto arrived in February 1833 and ruled as an absolute monarch, until the 3 September 1843 Revolution, which resulted in Independent Greece’s first constitution.

（来源：希腊驻上海总领馆；https://greeknewsagenda.gr/index.php/topics/culture-society/7395-london-protocol）

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