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4.4

2.9 Journals Forests

Economic Profitability of Carbon Sequestration of Fine-Aroma Cacao Agroforestry Systems in Amazonas, Peru

Investigating Water Storage Dynamics in the Litter Layer: The Impact of Mixing and Decay of Pine Needles and Oak Leaves

Identification of Pine Wilt Disease-Infested Stands Based on Single- and Multi-Temporal Medium-Resolution Satellite Data

Unearthing Current Knowledge Gaps in Our Understanding of Tree Stability: Review and Bibliometric Analysis

Due Diligence for Deforestation-Free Supply Chains with Copernicus Sentinel-2 Imagery and Machine Learning Journal Description Forests Forests is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on forestry and forest ecology published monthly online by MDPI. Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions. High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, PubAg, AGRIS, PaperChem, and other databases. Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Forestry) / CiteScore - Q1 (Forestry) Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023). Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done. Testimonials: See what our editors and authors say about Forests. Impact Factor: 2.9 (2022); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.0 (2022) subject Imprint Information get_app Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 1999-4907 Latest Articles attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 258 KiB) 15 pages, 3497 KiB Open AccessArticle Understorey Plant Functional Traits of Platycladus orientalis Depends on Crown Closure and Soil Properties in the Loess Plateau, China by Gaohui Duan, Lifeng Liu, Zhongming Wen, Yu Tang and Boheng Wang Forests 2024, 15(6), 1042; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061042 (registering DOI) - 16 Jun 2024 Abstract The crown closure of Platycladus orientalis forests has a wide-ranging impact on vegetation and soil, thereby affecting the overall functioning of the ecosystem. There is limited research on the effects of the Platycladus orientalis forest crown closure on changes in community plant functional [...] Read more. The crown closure of Platycladus orientalis forests has a wide-ranging impact on vegetation and soil, thereby affecting the overall functioning of the ecosystem. There is limited research on the effects of the Platycladus orientalis forest crown closure on changes in community plant functional traits, and their interactions are not yet clear. Therefore, we investigated 50 plots of different types of Platycladus orientalis crown closure, and we measured the functional traits of nine shrub species and 68 herb species in 50 plots under five different densities of Platycladus orientalis forests in the Loess Plateau. The consequence of Pearson’s correlation analysis showed significant positive correlations between LC and LTD, LN and LP, LN and LNP, LN and LV, LN and H, LP and LV, LP and H, and SLA and LV (p < 0.05). LC was significantly negatively correlated with LP, LC with SLA, LC with LV, LN with LTD, LP with LNP, LP with LTD, and LTD with H (p < 0.05). Only the soil phosphorus content (SP) and soil water content (SWC) showed a significant positive correlation with multiple plant functional traits. The crown closure of Platycladus orientalis forests increased significantly, as did the plant functional features. Changes in the Platycladus orientalis forest crown closure significantly increased the LC, LV, LN, LP, and SLA in plant functional traits. An increase in Platycladus orientalis forest crown closure significantly increased the soil organic carbon (SC), soil phosphorus content (SP), soil nitrogen content (SN), soil water content (SWC), field capacity (FC), and soil porosity (PO). Based on a structural equation model, we found that, while changes in the Platycladus orientalis forest crown closure did not directly affect plant functional traits, they could indirectly influence these traits through soil factors, primarily the soil water content (SWC) and soil phosphorus content (SP) (p < 0.05). Additionally, the mechanisms of the Platycladus orientalis forest crown closure’s impact on different functional traits vary. The research results provide scientific elements for the ecological restoration of Platycladus orientalis forests on the Loess Plateau. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Disturbance and Management) ►▼ Show Figures

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attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 518 KiB) 18 pages, 9383 KiB Open AccessArticle Impact of Root Cutting on Acer platanoides and Tilia cordata Tree Stability in Urban Parks: A Case Study in Quebec City, Canada by Clément Pallafray, Sivajanani Sivarajah and Jean-Claude Ruel Forests 2024, 15(6), 1041; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061041 (registering DOI) - 16 Jun 2024 Abstract Trees growing in urban environments are often impacted by maintenance or construction work involving the cutting of roots. Tree protection zones have been proposed to avoid critical damage to the tree. However, despite incorporating quantitative information, they heavily rely on expert judgement that [...] Read more. Trees growing in urban environments are often impacted by maintenance or construction work involving the cutting of roots. Tree protection zones have been proposed to avoid critical damage to the tree. However, despite incorporating quantitative information, they heavily rely on expert judgement that remains to be validated. In a study conducted across six parks in Quebec City, Canada, two commonly found tree species, Acer platanoides L. and Tilia cordata Mill., presumed to be different in terms of vulnerability to root damage, were subjected to a range of trenching treatments. The trees were between 23 and 40 cm diameter at breast height (DBH). A safety factor was calculated relating the turning moment the tree can withstand to the turning moment imposed by high winds likely to occur. The safety factor against uprooting was assessed for each tree before and after root trenching using a non-destructive pulling approach. The effects of tree species, distance to the trench, and their combined interaction were tested on tree stability. The relationship between tree stability and soil texture, tree characteristics, and the number of damaged roots were also tested. Safety factors were initially variable, ranging from 0.5 to 4.5. T. cordata safety factors were lower than those of A. platanoides and influenced by soil texture. Trenching treatments had no effect on the safety factor, even when two perpendicular trenches were dug at 1 m from the stem. No index of the amount of root damaged was significantly related to the safety factor. Root trenching treatments that encroached closer to the tree trunk than the recommended tree protection zones did not affect the stability of both species. Nevertheless, it is essential to recognize that other ecophysiological processes might still be influenced, and long-term monitoring is crucial. Both should be taken into account when determining these zones. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Forestry and Sustainable Cities) ►▼ Show Figures

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17 pages, 2783 KiB Open AccessArticle Enzyme Activity Stoichiometry Suggests That Fertilization, Especially Nitrogen Fertilization, Alleviates Nutrient Limitation of Soil Microorganisms in Moso Bamboo Forests by Haoyu Chu, Wenhui Su, Yaqi Zhou, Ziye Wang, Yongmei Long, Yutong Sun and Shaohui Fan Forests 2024, 15(6), 1040; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061040 (registering DOI) - 16 Jun 2024 Abstract Rational application of N fertilizer is essential for maintaining the long-term productivity of Moso bamboo forests. Microbial activity is a crucial indicator of soil quality. Changes in soil nutrient resources due to N addition can lead to microbial nutrient limitations, thereby impeding the [...] Read more. Rational application of N fertilizer is essential for maintaining the long-term productivity of Moso bamboo forests. Microbial activity is a crucial indicator of soil quality. Changes in soil nutrient resources due to N addition can lead to microbial nutrient limitations, thereby impeding the maintenance of soil quality. Currently, there is limited research on the effects of N application on microbial nutrient limitations in Moso bamboo forest soils. To examine the changes in extracellular enzyme activity and microbial nutrient limitations in Moso bamboo forest soils following N application, we conducted an N application experiment in northern Guizhou. The findings revealed that the N3 treatment (726 kg·N·hm−2·yr−1) significantly reduced β-glucosidase (BG) activity by 27.61% compared to the control group (no fertilization). The N1 (242 kg·N·hm−2·yr−1), N2 (484 kg·N·hm−2·yr−1), and N3 treatments notably increased the activities of leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosidase (NAG) by 11.45% to 15.79%. Acid phosphatase (ACP) activity remained unaffected by fertilization. N application treatments significantly decreased the C:Ne and C:Pe ratios, while the N:Pe ratio was less influenced by N fertilizer application. Scatter plots and vector characteristics of enzyme activity stoichiometry suggested that microorganisms in the study area were limited by C and N, and N fertilizer application reduced the vector length and increased the vector angle, indicating that N application alleviated the C and N limitation of microorganisms in Moso bamboo forests. Redundancy Analysis (RDA) demonstrated that microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP) was the most critical factor affecting extracellular enzyme activity and stoichiometry. Furthermore, Random Forest Regression analysis identified MBP and the N:Pm ratio as the most significant factors influencing microbial C and N limitation, respectively. The study demonstrated that N application modulates the microbial nutrient acquisition strategy by altering soil nutrient resources in Moso bamboo forests. Formulating fertilizer application strategies based on microbial nutrient requirements is more beneficial for maintaining soil quality and sustainably managing Moso bamboo forests. Additionally, our study offers a theoretical reference for understanding carbon cycling in bamboo forest ecosystems in the context of substantial N inputs. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue How Does Forest Management Affect Soil Dynamics?) ►▼ Show Figures

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21 pages, 14996 KiB Open AccessArticle Predicting Soil Erosion Using RUSLE and GeoSOS-FLUS Models: A Case Study in Kunming, China by Jinlin Lai, Jiashun Li and Li Liu Forests 2024, 15(6), 1039; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061039 (registering DOI) - 16 Jun 2024 Abstract Abstract: Revealing the relationship between land use changes and soil erosion provides a reference for formulating future land use strategies. This study simulated historical and future soil erosion changes based on the RULSE and GeoSOS-FLUS models and used a random forest model to [...] Read more. Abstract: Revealing the relationship between land use changes and soil erosion provides a reference for formulating future land use strategies. This study simulated historical and future soil erosion changes based on the RULSE and GeoSOS-FLUS models and used a random forest model to explain the relative importance of natural and anthropogenic factors on soil erosion. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) From 1990 to 2020, significant changes in land use occurred in Kunming, with a continuous reduction in woodland, grassland, and cropland, being converted into construction land, which grew by 195.18% compared with 1990. (2) During this period, the soil erosion modulus decreased from 133.85 t/(km²·a) in 1990 to 130.32 t/(km²·a) in 2020, with a reduction in soil loss by 74,485.46 t/a, mainly due to the conversion of cropland to construction and ecological lands (woodland, grassland). (3) The expansion of construction land will continue, and it is expected that by 2050, the soil erosion modulus will decrease by 3.77 t/(km²·a), 4.27 t/(km²·a), and 3.27 t/(km²·a) under natural development, rapid development, and ecological protection scenarios, respectively. However, under the cropland protection scenario, the soil erosion modulus increased by 0.26 t/(km²·a) compared with 2020. (4) The spatial pattern of soil erosion is influenced by both natural and anthropogenic factors, and as human activities intensify in the future, the influence of anthropogenic factors will further increase. Traditionally, the expansion of construction land is thought to increase soil loss. Our study may offer a new perspective and provide a reference for future land use planning and soil loss management in Kunming. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil) 16 pages, 6138 KiB Open AccessArticle Effects of Dowel Rotation Welding Conditions on Connection Performance for Chinese Fir Dimension Lumbers by Xiao Zhong, De Li, Xiaoxue Xu, Quan Li, Danyun Yu, Zhigang Wu, Jiankun Liang, Jun Peng, Wen Gu, Xin Zhao, Shuang Yin, Guifen Yang and Feiyan Gong Forests 2024, 15(6), 1038; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061038 (registering DOI) - 15 Jun 2024 Abstract In this study, the rotating welding process of Chinese fir (Keteleeriafortunei) in Guizhou, China, was systematically analyzed. The effects of rotating welding conditions, including the dowel-to-guide hole diameter ratio, welding time, depth, base surface, angle, and dowel type, on the performance [...] Read more. In this study, the rotating welding process of Chinese fir (Keteleeriafortunei) in Guizhou, China, was systematically analyzed. The effects of rotating welding conditions, including the dowel-to-guide hole diameter ratio, welding time, depth, base surface, angle, and dowel type, on the performance of welded Chinese fir were explored. Moreover, the physical and chemical changes oftheChinese fir interface during welding were revealed by Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The results indicated the following: (1) The rotating welding technology can quickly achieve a strong connection between wood through friction heat without chemical adhesives and compared with traditional wood connection technology such as gluing or mechanical fixing;it has the advantages of simple operation, high production efficiency; and environmental friendliness. (2) Aftertherotating welding, the wood underwent significant pyrolysis, especially the degradation of hemicellulose. The heat generated in the welding process caused good melting and mechanical interlocking between the dowel and the wall of the guide hole, but it was also accompanied by afriction loss of the dowel and the substrate. (3) The welding parameters affected the wood’s connection strength and stability by altering heat production, distribution, transfer, and frictional losses. The impact of the dowel-to-guide hole diameter ratio had a great influence on the connection strength. When the diameter ratio was 1:0.7, the tensile strength was the highest, reaching 2.27 MPa. (4) The analyses of XPS, FTIR, XRD, and SEM proved thatthechemical composition changes at the interface, leading to a more structured crystalline bond and enhanced connection strength due to fiber entanglement and interlocking. This research providesatheoretical and experimental basis forthefurther innovation and development of wood processing technology and provides a new technical path forthegreen manufacturing of wood structure buildings. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Cultivation, Protection and High-Value Utilization of Forest Resources) ►▼ Show Figures

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attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 257 KiB) 18 pages, 3421 KiB Open AccessReview A Bibliometric Analysis of the Mechanisms Underlying Drought-Induced Tree Mortality by Yaqian Gao, Zetao Chen, Jiaxian Chen, Ling Yang, Jiyue Li, Qian He, Quan Qiu and Yan Su Forests 2024, 15(6), 1037; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061037 (registering DOI) - 14 Jun 2024 Abstract Drought intensity and frequency have increased in recent years, which poses significant threats to forest ecosystems, especially in the context of global climate change. This paper is aimed at summarizing the current state of research and global development trends regarding drought-induced tree mortality [...] Read more. Drought intensity and frequency have increased in recent years, which poses significant threats to forest ecosystems, especially in the context of global climate change. This paper is aimed at summarizing the current state of research and global development trends regarding drought-induced tree mortality mechanisms in tree physiology. Developing a robust literature foundation will facilitate in-depth research and foster the exchange of knowledge related to this subject. A literature review was conducted using tools such as VOSviewer, CiteSpace, and the Bibliometrix R-package to review the literature from the Web of Science’s core database from 1985 to 2023. We intend to determine the current state and evolution of global research on drought-induced tree mortality mechanisms. The results reveal that research on drought-induced tree mortality mechanisms gained momentum predominantly in the last two decades, with a marked surge post-2012. The United States is the epicenter of research, leading the global scientific community with its preeminence in publication volume, citation rates, and the scope of collaborative networks, with China in close pursuit. Tree Physiology stands out as the leading journal in this domain, boasting 129 articles. McDowell NG emerges as the most prolific author, with an H-index of 41, underscoring his influence in the field. There is a clear upward trend in collaborations spanning authors, journals, research institutions, and countries. The analysis of frequently cited keywords and topic evolution suggests that drought and tree mortality will likely remain key research areas for the foreseeable future. The future of research on drought-induced tree mortality mechanisms in physiology is promising, as it emphasizes multidisciplinary approaches and global collaborations. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Abiotic Stress in Tree Species) 17 pages, 3527 KiB Open AccessArticle Soybean Meal–Oxidized Lignin as Bio-Hybridized Wood Panel Adhesives with Increased Water Resistance by Wenbin Zhang, Chengyuan Liu, Zhiyuan Du, Hui Wang, Guanben Du, Hisham Essawy, Hong Lei, Xuedong Xi, Xiaojian Zhou and Ming Cao Forests 2024, 15(6), 1036; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061036 - 14 Jun 2024 Abstract Soybean meal (SM) adhesive is widely acknowledged as a viable substitute for traditional formaldehyde-based adhesives, given its ability to be easily modified, the utilization of renewable sources, and its eco-friendly characteristics. However, the application of SM adhesive in manufacturing has been impeded due [...] Read more. Soybean meal (SM) adhesive is widely acknowledged as a viable substitute for traditional formaldehyde-based adhesives, given its ability to be easily modified, the utilization of renewable sources, and its eco-friendly characteristics. However, the application of SM adhesive in manufacturing has been impeded due to its restricted bonding capacity and inadequate water resistance. Researchers in the wood industry have recognized the significance of creating an SM-based adhesive, which possesses remarkable adhesive strength and resistance to water. This study endeavors to tackle the issue of inadequate water resistance in SM adhesives. Sodium lignosulfonate (L) was oxidized using hydrogen peroxide (HP) to oxidized lignin (OL) with a quinone structure. OL was then used as a modifier, being blended with SM to prepare SM-based biomass (OLS) adhesives with good water resistance, which was found practically through its utilization in the production of plywood. The influence of the HP dosage and OL addition on plywood properties was examined. The changes in the lignin structure before and after oxidation were confirmed using gel permeation chromatography (GPC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The curing behavior and thermal stability of OLS adhesives were analyzed using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and thermogravimetric (TG) analysis. The reaction mechanism was also investigated using FT-IR and XPS. The outcomes indicated a decrease in the molecular weight of L after oxidation using HP, and, at the same time, quinone and aldehyde functionalized structures were produced. As a result of the reaction between the quinone and aldehyde groups in OL with the amino groups in SM, a dense network structure formed, enhancing the water resistance of the adhesive significantly. The adhesive displayed exceptional resistance to water when the HP dosage was set at 10% of L and the OL addition was 10% based on the mass of SM. These specific conditions led to a notable enhancement in the wet bonding strength (63 °C, 3 h) of the plywood prepared using the adhesive, reaching 0.88 ± 0.14 MPa. This value represents a remarkable 125.6% increase when compared to the pure SM adhesive (0.39 ± 0.02 MPa). The findings from this study introduce a novel approach for developing adhesives that exhibit exceptional water resistance. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Cultivation, Protection and High-Value Utilization of Forest Resources) 28 pages, 1557 KiB Open AccessArticle The Impact of the Governance Fragmentation of Forestry Communities on the Economic Performance of State-Owned Forest Enterprises in Northeast China: An Empirical Analysis Based on the Transaction Cost Perspective by Yuan Ji, Shenwei Wan and Shuifa Ke Forests 2024, 15(6), 1035; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061035 - 14 Jun 2024 Abstract The 2015 reform of state-owned forest regions (SOFRs) in Northeast China required state-owned forest enterprises (SOFEs) to transfer their governmental and social roles to local authorities. This transition, however, created fragmented governance within forestry communities due to the absence of cooperative mechanisms between [...] Read more. The 2015 reform of state-owned forest regions (SOFRs) in Northeast China required state-owned forest enterprises (SOFEs) to transfer their governmental and social roles to local authorities. This transition, however, created fragmented governance within forestry communities due to the absence of cooperative mechanisms between SOFEs and local governments. This study examines the economic effects of this governance fragmentation on SOFEs and explores the underlying mechanisms. The research combines new institutional economics and transaction cost theory to develop hypotheses and employs empirical analysis using fixed-effects models on data from 39 SOFEs, belonging to two forest industry groups from 2015 to 2022, collected through surveys and field investigations. The findings indicate that governance fragmentation has a significant negative impact on the economic performance of SOFEs. The high transaction costs incurred by SOFEs in achieving community co-governance with local governments are identified as a key mediating mechanism. These costs lead to resource dispersion and diminished trust between SOFEs and local governments. The economic impact of this governance fragmentation varies based on the economic conditions of the SOFEs, their operational scales, and the clarity of geographical management boundaries with local governments. To mitigate the adverse effects of governance fragmentation, the study suggests proactive institutional designs to reduce transaction costs. These findings offer new insights into the corporate social responsibilities of Chinese SOFEs and suggest improvements in the governance structures of forestry communities in SOFRs in Northeast China. Additionally, the study expands the application of transaction cost theory in public affairs governance and enhances quantitative research on the economic impact on enterprises. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Public Policies in Incentivizing Forest, Mountain and Rural Economy) ►▼ Show Figures

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14 pages, 1337 KiB Open AccessArticle The Added Value of Urban Trees (Tilia tomentosa Moench, Fraxinus excelsior L. and Pinus nigra J.F. Arnold) in Terms of Air Pollutant Removal by Slaveya Petrova Forests 2024, 15(6), 1034; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061034 - 14 Jun 2024 Abstract The serious densification of human settlements necessitates an increase in the role and importance of green infrastructures in the overall functioning of urban ecosystems. Accordingly, the aim of the present study was to (1) assess the efficiency of air pollutant removal (potentially toxic [...] Read more. The serious densification of human settlements necessitates an increase in the role and importance of green infrastructures in the overall functioning of urban ecosystems. Accordingly, the aim of the present study was to (1) assess the efficiency of air pollutant removal (potentially toxic elements) of three common ornamental trees (Tilia tomentosa Moench, Fraxinus excelsior L. and Pinus nigra J.F. Arnold) and (2) model the air quality regulatory services (removal of PM10, PM2.5 and NO2). Three different approaches were applied—enrichment factor (EF) and metal accumulation factor (MAI) per tree species, as well as simulation modeling for the whole urban forest. The MAI values of the three studied species were found to be very similar, in the range of 22.35 to 23.08, which suggests that these species could be a good choice for planting in urban areas with worsened air quality. The highest EF values were observed for U (3–18), followed by As (1.6–2.56) and Sr (0.87–2.46). The potential of urban forests in countering air pollution was highlighted by three simulated scenarios for PM10, PM2.5 and NO2 removal. The highest removal efficiency was calculated for evergreen species, followed by the mixed composition of deciduous (90%) and evergreen trees (10%), and the scenario with wholly deciduous trees had the lowest one. The contribution of nature-based solutions in meeting air quality standards and enhancing resilience in urban areas was clearly demonstrated. The functional complementarity of the different functional tree groups (coniferous, evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved species) was proven to be crucial for the support of both functional stabilities of the phytocenosis under diverse climatic conditions and during the change of seasonal cycles in the vegetation. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances on the Influence of Vegetation and Forest on Urban Air Quality and Thermal Comfort—Series II) attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 192 KiB) 15 pages, 1133 KiB Open AccessArticle Predicting the Potential Distribution of Quercus oxyphylla in China under Climate Change Scenarios by Shuhan Chen, Chengming You, Zheng Zhang and Zhenfeng Xu Forests 2024, 15(6), 1033; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061033 - 14 Jun 2024 Abstract Global climate changes are expected to profoundly shape species distribution. Quercus oxyphylla, a valuable evergreen broad-leaved tree species, is rigorously conserved and managed in China owing to its substantial scientific, economic, and ecological value. However, the impact of projected climate change on [...] Read more. Global climate changes are expected to profoundly shape species distribution. Quercus oxyphylla, a valuable evergreen broad-leaved tree species, is rigorously conserved and managed in China owing to its substantial scientific, economic, and ecological value. However, the impact of projected climate change on its future distribution and potential climatic drivers remains unclear. Here, a maximum entropy model (MaxEnt) was used to explore the distribution of Q. oxyphylla in China under current conditions and three future scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5) for the 2050s and 2070s. We optimized the model using the ‘ENMeval’ package to obtain the best parameter combination (RM = 1, FC = LQHPT), and multiple evaluation metrics (AUC ≥ 0.9; TSS ≥ 0.6; Kappa ≥ 0.75) verified the high accuracy of the model and the reliability of the prediction results. We found the following: (1) The potential distribution of Q. oxyphylla spans across 28 provinces in China under current climatic conditions, predominantly in southern regions, with Sichuan exhibiting the largest suitable area for survival. The total suitable habitat covers 244.98 × 104 km2, comprising highly, moderately, and poorly suitable habitats of 51.66 × 104 km2, 65.98 × 104 km2, and 127.34 × 104 km2, respectively. (2) Under future climate conditions, the overall geographical boundaries of Q. oxyphylla are predicted to remain similar to the present one, with an increase of 10.29% in the 2050s and 11.31% in the 2070s. In the 2050s, the total suitable habitats for Q. oxyphylla under the three scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5) might increase by 8.83%, 9.62%, and 12.42%, while in the 2070s they might increase by 10.39%, 17.21%, and 6.33%, respectively. (3) Moreover, the centroid of the suitable area is expected to migrate southwestward under the three scenarios in the future. (4) Annual precipitation, isothermality, and temperature annual range emerged as the main factors influencing the distribution of Q. oxyphylla, with contributions of 55.9%, 25.7%, and 13.5%, respectively. Our findings refined the spatial arrangement of Q. oxyphylla growth and revealed its climate resilience. This suggested that under climate change, Sichuan and Shaanxi are the optimal regions for cultivation and management, while appropriate conservation strategies should be formulated in Tibet and Hubei. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Forest Meteorology and Climate Change) 16 pages, 7810 KiB Open AccessArticle Topographic Variation in Ecosystem Multifunctionality in an Old-Growth Subtropical Forest by Jiaming Wang, Han Xu, Qingsong Yang, Yuying Li, Mingfei Ji, Yepu Li, Zhongbing Chang, Yangyi Qin, Qiushi Yu and Xihua Wang Forests 2024, 15(6), 1032; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061032 - 14 Jun 2024 Abstract Exploring the relationship between topography and forest multifunctionality enhances understanding of the mechanisms maintaining forest multifunctionality and proves beneficial for managing overall forest functions across different landscapes. Leveraging census data from a 20 ha subtropical forest plot, we investigated the topographic variations in [...] Read more. Exploring the relationship between topography and forest multifunctionality enhances understanding of the mechanisms maintaining forest multifunctionality and proves beneficial for managing overall forest functions across different landscapes. Leveraging census data from a 20 ha subtropical forest plot, we investigated the topographic variations in individual functions, multifunctionality, and their interrelationships. Our results revealed that relative to lower elevations, higher elevations had higher woody productivity, sapling growth, and recruitment that drove higher average forest multifunctionality (FMA). However, forest multifunctionality at the 50% threshold level (FMt50) had no significant difference between high and low elevations. Compared with the valley and slope, higher woody productivity, higher sapling recruitment, and higher soil organic carbon stock drove higher forest multifunctionality (FMA and FMt50) in the ridge. These results indicate the ridge serves as a forest multifunctionality “hotspot” within the Tiantong 20 hm2 plot. Additionally, relative to the low elevation, the degree of synergy among functions at the high elevation was significantly lower, indicating difficulties in attaining high forest multifunctionality at the high elevation. Our work underscores the importance of topography in regulating subtropical forest multifunctionality and relationships between forest functions at a local scale, suggesting that future forest management strategies (such as regulating synergistic or trade-off relationships between functions) should give particular attention to topographic conditions. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Remote Sensing of Forests Ecosystem) 17 pages, 13656 KiB Open AccessArticle A Reliable DBH Estimation Method Using Terrestrial LiDAR Points through Polar Coordinate Transformation and Progressive Outlier Removal by Zhenyang Hui, Lei Lin, Shuanggen Jin, Yuanping Xia and Yao Yevenyo Ziggah Forests 2024, 15(6), 1031; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061031 - 13 Jun 2024 Abstract Diameter at breast height (DBH) is a crucial parameter for forest inventory. However, accurately estimating DBH remains challenging due to the noisy and incomplete cross-sectional points. To address this, this paper proposed a reliable DBH estimation method using terrestrial LiDAR points through polar [...] Read more. Diameter at breast height (DBH) is a crucial parameter for forest inventory. However, accurately estimating DBH remains challenging due to the noisy and incomplete cross-sectional points. To address this, this paper proposed a reliable DBH estimation method using terrestrial LiDAR points through polar coordinate transformation and progressive outlier removal. In this paper, the initial center was initially detected by rasterizing the convex hull, and then the Cartesian coordinates were transformed into polar coordinates. In the polar coordinate system, the outliers were classified as low and high outliers according to the distribution of polar radius difference. Both types of outliers were then removed using adaptive thresholds and the moving least squares algorithm. Finally, DBH was estimated by calculating the definite integral of arc length in the polar coordinate system. Twenty publicly available individual trees were adopted for the test. Experimental results indicated that the proposed method performs better than the other four classical DBH estimation methods. Furthermore, several extreme cases scanned using terrestrial LiDAR in practice, such as cross-sectional points with lots of outliers or larger data gaps, were also tested. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method accurately calculates DBH even in these challenging cases. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue LiDAR Remote Sensing for Forestry) ►▼ Show Figures

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18 pages, 7131 KiB Open AccessArticle Forest Fire Image Deblurring Based on Spatial–Frequency Domain Fusion by Xueyi Kong, Yunfei Liu, Ruipeng Han, Shuang Li and Han Liu Forests 2024, 15(6), 1030; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061030 - 13 Jun 2024 Abstract UAVs are commonly used in forest fire detection, but the captured fire images often suffer from blurring due to the rapid motion between the airborne camera and the fire target. In this study, a multi-input, multi-output U-Net architecture that combines spatial domain and [...] Read more. UAVs are commonly used in forest fire detection, but the captured fire images often suffer from blurring due to the rapid motion between the airborne camera and the fire target. In this study, a multi-input, multi-output U-Net architecture that combines spatial domain and frequency domain information is proposed for image deblurring. The architecture includes a multi-branch dilated convolution attention residual module in the encoder to enhance receptive fields and address local features and texture detail limitations. A feature-fusion module integrating spatial frequency domains is also included in the skip connection structure to reduce feature loss and enhance deblurring performance. Additionally, a multi-channel convolution attention residual module in the decoders improves the reconstruction of local and contextual information. A weighted loss function is utilized to enhance network stability and generalization. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed model outperforms popular models in terms of subjective perception and quantitative evaluation, achieving a PSNR of 32.26 dB, SSIM of 0.955, LGF of 10.93, and SMD of 34.31 on the self-built forest fire datasets and reaching 86% of the optimal PSNR and 87% of the optimal SSIM. In experiments without reference images, the model performs well in terms of LGF and SMD. The results obtained by this model are superior to the currently popular SRN and MPRNet models. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing) ►▼ Show Figures

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attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 277 KiB) 15 pages, 1065 KiB Open AccessArticle Converting Low-Productivity Pasture to Well-Managed Pasture and Silvopastoral System Cause Relevant Changes in Soil Chemical and Microbiological Characteristics by Libério Junio da Silva, Igor Costa de Freitas, Luiz Henrique Gomes de Abreu, Dener Márcio da Silva Oliveira, Demerson Luiz de Almeida Barbosa, Cléber Cunha Figueredo, Vagner Luis Camilotti, Marcus Vinícius Teixeira and Leidivan Almeida Frazão Forests 2024, 15(6), 1029; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061029 - 13 Jun 2024 Abstract This study evaluated the chemical and microbiological soil attributes in a silvopastoral system compared to well-managed pasture, degraded pasture, and Cerrado vegetation in Brazil. A randomized design with four replications was employed to collect soil samples at seven depths. These samples were analyzed [...] Read more. This study evaluated the chemical and microbiological soil attributes in a silvopastoral system compared to well-managed pasture, degraded pasture, and Cerrado vegetation in Brazil. A randomized design with four replications was employed to collect soil samples at seven depths. These samples were analyzed for carbon (C), nitrogen (N), pH, phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and cation exchange capacity (CEC). Soil microbial attributes were also evaluated at three depths during the dry and wet seasons. Carbon stocks in the evaluated systems varied (0–100 cm), with the highest stocks found in well-managed pasture (MP) (129.5 Mg C ha−1), followed by the silvopastoral system (SPS) (106.6 Mg C ha−1), and the lowest values in native vegetation (NV) (84.8 Mg C ha−1) and degraded pasture (DP) (63.4 Mg C ha−1). Higher pH and base sum were observed in MP. Soil microbial biomass (Cmic) did not differ between treatments during the wet season but was generally higher in MP and lower in DP during the dry season. MP effectively regulated the chemical and biological quality of the soil. The SPS demonstrated that it is possible to combine the cultivation of trees and pastures in the same area, contributing to the improvement of the chemical and biological attributes of the soil in the Brazilian Cerrado. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Agroforestry Systems as Strategy to Recover Soil Health and Mitigate Climate Changes) 21 pages, 2833 KiB Open AccessArticle Optimizing Hardwood Lignin Precipitation from Kraft Black Liquor: A Study of Temperature and pH Effects by Richard Nadányi, Grigory Zinovyev, Matúš Majerčiak, Martin Štosel, Michal Jablonský and Aleš Ház Forests 2024, 15(6), 1028; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061028 - 13 Jun 2024 Abstract Lignin, a complex and heterogeneous biopolymer derived from wood, holds immense potential as a sustainable feedstock for various industrial applications. Kraft pulping, a widely employed process in the paper industry, generates black liquor containing lignin along with other organic and inorganic compounds. The [...] Read more. Lignin, a complex and heterogeneous biopolymer derived from wood, holds immense potential as a sustainable feedstock for various industrial applications. Kraft pulping, a widely employed process in the paper industry, generates black liquor containing lignin along with other organic and inorganic compounds. The precipitation of lignin from black liquor offers an opportunity for valorization, contributing to the circular economy and reducing the environmental impact. Although the precipitation process of softwood lignin is extensively documented and outlined in the existing literature, the identical process originating from hardwood-derived black liquor poses challenges attributed to the distinct composition of hardwood. This study systematically investigates the individual and combined influences of temperature and pH on the precipitation of hardwood lignin from kraft black liquor, utilizing a factorial design to evaluate lignin functional characteristics. The characterization of the precipitated lignin was performed using various analytical techniques, mainly NIR, elemental composition, UV-VIS, and calorimetry. The results reveal remarkable interactions between temperature and pH, indicating their synergistic effects on lignin precipitation. The optimal conditions for hardwood lignin precipitation were identified and successfully upscaled during piloting experiments conducted under industrial conditions. This research provides valuable insights into the fundamental factors governing hardwood lignin precipitation from kraft black liquor and offers a basis for the development of efficient and sustainable lignin recovery processes in the pulp and paper industry. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products) ►▼ Show Figures

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attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 1169 KiB) 15 pages, 7917 KiB Open AccessArticle Influence of Early-Season Drought on the Peak of Growing Season in China Varies by Drought Timing and Biomes by Zexing Tao, Junhu Dai, Xiaoyue Wang and Yuan Wang Forests 2024, 15(6), 1027; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061027 - 13 Jun 2024 Abstract The peak of growing season (POG) represents the timing of the maximum capacity of vegetation photosynthesis and acts as a crucial phenological indicator for the carbon cycle in terrestrial ecosystems. However, little is known about how POG responds to extreme climate events such [...] Read more. The peak of growing season (POG) represents the timing of the maximum capacity of vegetation photosynthesis and acts as a crucial phenological indicator for the carbon cycle in terrestrial ecosystems. However, little is known about how POG responds to extreme climate events such as drought across different biomes. Based on two drought indices, we analyzed the temporal–spatial pattern of drought and POG in China and then investigated how drought influenced the POG in different periods of the early season through correlation analysis. In general, a trend towards increased aridity and earlier POG was found in most areas. The impact of drought on POG differed among periods. On the one hand, an earlier POG enabled plants to reduce evapotranspiration and mitigate the risk of severe summer drought. On the other hand, the drought that occurred in spring impeded plant growth and caused a delay in spring phenology, thereby postponing POG. Summer drought led to an earlier POG in relatively dry biomes but inversely led to a later peak in photosynthetic activity in wetter biomes. We also observed a 1-month/2-month lagged effect of drought on POG in almost half of the areas and a 2-month/ 3-month cumulative effect of drought in the north of 50° N. These findings enhance our understanding of carbon uptake in terrestrial ecosystems by clarifying the mechanisms by which climate change impacts vegetation growth and photosynthetic activity. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Woody Plant Phenology in a Changing Climate) ►▼ Show Figures

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17 pages, 2541 KiB Open AccessArticle Environmental Response of Tree Species Distribution in Northeast China with the Joint Species Distribution Model by Juan Yong, Guangshuang Duan, Shaozhi Chen and Xiangdong Lei Forests 2024, 15(6), 1026; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061026 - 13 Jun 2024 Abstract The composition, distribution, and growth of native natural forests are important references for the restoration, structural adjustment, and close-to-nature transformation of artificial forests. The joint species distribution model is a powerful tool for analyzing community structure and interspecific relationships. It has been widely [...] Read more. The composition, distribution, and growth of native natural forests are important references for the restoration, structural adjustment, and close-to-nature transformation of artificial forests. The joint species distribution model is a powerful tool for analyzing community structure and interspecific relationships. It has been widely used in biogeography, community ecology, and animal ecology, but it has not been extended to natural forest conservation and restoration in China. Therefore, based on the 9th National Forest Inventory data in Jilin Province, combined with environmental factors and functional traits of tree species, this study adopted the joint species distribution model—including a model with all variables (model FULL), a model with environmental factors (model ENV), and a model with spatial factors (model SPACE)—to examine the distribution of multiple tree species. The results show that, in models FULL and ENV, the environmental factors explaining the model variation were ranked as follows, climate > site > soil. The explanatory power was as follows: model FULL (AUC = 0.8325, Tjur R2 = 0.2326) > model ENV (AUC = 0.7664, Tjur R2 = 0.1454) > model SPACE (AUC = 0.7297, Tjur R2 = 0.1346). Tree species niches in model ENV were similar to those in model FULL. Compared to predictive power, we found that the information transmitted by environmental and spatial predictors overlaps, so the choice between model FULL and ENV should be based on the purpose of the model, rather than the difference in predictive ability. Both models can be used to study the adaptive distribution of multiple tree species in northeast China. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling Forest Response to Climate Change) ►▼ Show Figures

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attachment Supplementary material: Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 822 KiB) 7 pages, 3236 KiB Open AccessCommunication A Putative Ormycovirus That Possibly Contributes to the Yellow Leaf Disease of Areca Palm by Xiaoqing Niu, Zhongtian Xu, Yujing Tian, Siyun Xiao, Yuan Xie, Zhenguo Du, Weiquan Qin and Fangluan Gao Forests 2024, 15(6), 1025; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061025 - 13 Jun 2024 Abstract Yellow leaf disease (YLD) poses a significant challenge to areca palm cultivation, yet its etiology remains uncertain. During our investigation of YLD-affected areca palm plants, transcriptome sequencing revealed an RNA contig exhibiting striking similarities to the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) of ormycoviruses. Subsequent [...] Read more. Yellow leaf disease (YLD) poses a significant challenge to areca palm cultivation, yet its etiology remains uncertain. During our investigation of YLD-affected areca palm plants, transcriptome sequencing revealed an RNA contig exhibiting striking similarities to the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) of ormycoviruses. Subsequent gene cloning techniques yielded the full-length sequence of this RNA, potentially representing either the complete or partial genome of a hitherto unidentified ormycovirus, tentatively named areca palm yellow leaf-associated ormycovirus (APYLaOMV). RT-PCR detection found that APYLaOMV is present in over 30% of YLD-affected areca palm samples but is absent in healthy ones, suggesting a potential link between APYLaOMV and YLD. In summary, these data could be valuable in understanding the etiology of YLD in areca palms. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Forest Health) ►▼ Show Figures

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13 pages, 2188 KiB Open AccessArticle Response of Photosynthetic Capacity to Climate Warming and Its Variation among 11 Provenances of Dahurian Larch (Larix gmelinii) by Ruiping Tian, Luyao Li, Dongjia Zhang, Jun Zhang, Chuankuan Wang and Xiankui Quan Forests 2024, 15(6), 1024; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061024 - 13 Jun 2024 Abstract Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii) is the dominant tree species in boreal forests, and its photosynthetic response to climate warming is important in modeling and predicting carbon cycling for boreal forest ecosystems. In 1983, seedlings of L. gmelinii from 11 provenances were [...] Read more. Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii) is the dominant tree species in boreal forests, and its photosynthetic response to climate warming is important in modeling and predicting carbon cycling for boreal forest ecosystems. In 1983, seedlings of L. gmelinii from 11 provenances were transplanted into two common gardens with different climate conditions (control and warming climate). Forty years after the transplant, we investigated the response of leaf photosynthetic capacity to climate warming and its variation among provenances. The warming treatment significantly increased the maximum net photosynthetic rate (Pmax-a), photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency (PNUE), maximum carboxylation rate (Vcmax), maximum electron transport rate (Jmax), triose phosphate utilization rate (TPU), mesophyll conductance (gm), leaf nitrogen content (Narea), and chlorophyll content (Chlm). Pmax-a was significantly positively associated with Vcmax, Jmax, TPU, gm, and Narea, and the slope of the linear regression between Pmax-a and Vcmax, Jmax, and TPU was greater in the warming treatment. The responses of Pmax-a, PNUE, Vcmax, Jmax, TPU, Narea, and Chlm to warming differed among provenances. As the aridity index of the original site increased, the magnitude of the warming treatment’s effect on Pmax-a, Vcmax, Jmax, and TPU represented a varying form of a bell-shaped curve. Overall, the warming treatment improved the photosynthetic capacity of L. gmelinii, but the extent of the improvement varied among provenances. These findings provide insights into the mechanisms underlying the responses of L. gmelinii to climate warming. Full article (This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management) ►▼ Show Figures

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14 pages, 5820 KiB Open AccessArticle The Gradient Variation of Location Distribution, Cross-Section Area, and Mechanical Properties of Moso Bamboo Vascular Bundles along the Radial Direction by Hongbo Li, Qipeng Zhu, Pengchen Lu, Xi Chen and Yu Xian Forests 2024, 15(6), 1023; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15061023 - 13 Jun 2024 Abstract Bamboo is a typical natural fiber-reinforced composite with excellent mechanical properties, which are determined by its special micro-structure. As the reinforcing phase, the vascular bundles play a central role in the control of the mechanical properties of bamboo macro-structure. To find the exact [...] Read more. Bamboo is a typical natural fiber-reinforced composite with excellent mechanical properties, which are determined by its special micro-structure. As the reinforcing phase, the vascular bundles play a central role in the control of the mechanical properties of bamboo macro-structure. To find the exact gradient variation of the mechanical properties of these continuously distributed vascular bundles within the bamboo culm, 4-year-old Moso bamboo was chosen to investigate the variation of locate-distribution, cross-section area, and mechanical properties of single vascular bundles along the longitudinal and radial directions with respect to their location from the base, middle, and top sections of bamboo culm, respectively. It shows that the spatial distribution of vascular bundles along the column is distributed exponentially from the inside to the outside of the culm. The cross-section area of the vascular bundles decreased exponentially from the inside to the outside along the radial direction. All the vascular bundles were then carefully separated from bamboo strips and tested via the tensile tests. Test results show that the longitudinal tensile strengths of vascular bundles ranged from 180.44 to 774.10 MPa, and the longitudinal Young’s modulus ranged from 9.00 to 44.76 GPa. The tensile strength of vascular bundles at the outer side was three times higher than that of the inner side, while Young’s modulus at the outer side was three to four times higher than that of the inner side. For all three height positions, the strengths and Young’s modulus of vascular bundles are all exponentially increased from the inner side to the outer side along the radial direction. This work will provide a basis for the highly processed product’s application of bamboo resources and a reference for further study on the trans-scale analysis of the mechanical properties of bamboo. Full article (This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood- and Bamboo-Based Materials) ►▼ Show Figures

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